G. E. WARING, Jr. 

Cimatilting IgrintitiiriHt. 



ACCURATE ANALYSES OF SOILS, MANURES, AND 
CROPS PROCURED. FARMS VISITED, 
TREATMENT RECOMMENDED, 
ETC. 



Letters of advice on anal^'ses will be written for those who 
require them, for $25 each. 

Letters on other branches of the subject, inclosing a suit- 
able fee, will receive prompt attention. 



Office, 143 Fultox-steeet, New Yoek, (up stairs. 
Post-Office Address, Rye, N. Y. 



DR, CHARLES ENDERLIN, 

ANALYTICAL AND CONSULTINQ 



Cjimist, 



84 WALKEK-STBEET, 

NEW YORK. 



Analysis of Minerals, Soils, — Organic Analysis, etc. 



D, APPLETO]^ & COMPANY 

HAVE IN COUKSE OF PKBPARATION, 

r 

THE 

EARTHWORKER; 

OE, 

Book of Husbandry. 



By G. E. waring, Jr. 
Author of the "Elements of AaRicir ltuke," 



This .book is intended as a sequel to the Elements of Agri- 
culture, being a larger and more complete work, containing 
fuller directions for the treatment of the different kinds of 
soils, for thQ preimration of mamires^ and especially for the 
drainage of lands, whether level, rolling, hilly, or springy. 
Particular attention will be paid to the use of analysis. The 
feeding of different animals, and the cultivation of the various 
crops, will be described with care. 

The size of the work will be about 400 pp. 8vo., and it 
will probably be published January 1st, 1856. Price $1. 
Orders sent to the publishers, or to the author, at Rye, 1^. Y., 
will be supplied in the order in which they are received. 



ELExMENTS 



OF 



AGRICULTURE 



Extract trom a letter to the author from Prof, Mapes, editor 

of the Worhing Farmer : 

* * * " After a perugtl of your manuscript, I feel authorized 

in assuring you thrvt, for the use of young farmers, and schools, your book 13 su- 
perior to any other elementary work extant JAMES J. MAPES." 



Letter from the Editor of the IST. Y. Tribune : 

My 1'riexd Wakixg, 

If all who need the information given in your Elements 
f>r .*.(/)• /I'uUure will confess their ignorance as frankly as I do, and seek to dispel 
il a.^ ])roinptly and heartily, you will have done a vast amount of good by writing 
jj. ***** I iiave found in every chapter important truths, which I, 
as a wDuld-be-farmer. needed to know, yet which I did not know, or had but a 
confused and glimmering consciousness of, before I read your lucid and straight- 
forward exposition of the bases of Agriculture as a science. I would not have my 
son grow up as ignorant of thes(> truths as I did for many times the price of your 
book ; and, I believe, a copy of that book in every family in the Union, would 
speedily add at least ten per cent, per acre to the aggregate product of our soil, 
beside doing much to stem and reverse the current which now sets so strongly 
away from the plow and the scythe toward the counter and the offlceL Trusting 
that your labors will be widely regarded and appreciated, 

I remain yours truly, 

HOEACE GEEELEY. 

New York, June 23, 1S54. 



THE 

.A 

ELEMENTS OF AGRICULTURE: 



^ §a0k far |0ttng farmtrs, 



WITH QUESTIONS PKEPAKED FOR THE USE OF 

SCHOOLS. 



^y'^ 



GEO: e)" WARING, Jr., 

CONSULTINO AQEIC0LTUKIST. 



The oflFort to extend the dominion of man over nature is the most healthy and 
most noble of all ambitions. — Bacon. 



NEW YOEK : 
D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 



346 & 34S BROADWAY. 

M DCCC LIV. 




^^Z^^, C->C-c^/ij^ ^y^J^C^ 




-A e^/.^^^-4^' t z. yrr- 






ztm 



Entered according to Act of Congi'ess, in the year 1854, by 

GEO. E. WAKING, Je., 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 

District Oi xfew York. 

4y tranaier fros 
?at. Oiaoe Ub. 



,o ^ > ■ . •- .• 



TO 

MY (FRIEND AND TTJTOE, 

PROF. JAMES J. MAPES, 

THE PIONEEE OF AGRIOTJLTUEAL SCIENCE IN AMEEIOA, 

IS E E 8 P E T F U L L Y -D E D I C A T E D 
BY HIS PUPIL, 

THE AUTHOR. 



TO THE STUDENT. 

This book is presented to you, not as a work of science, 
nor as a dry, chemical treatise, but as a plain statement 
of the more simple operations by which nature produces 
many results, so common to our observation, that we are 
thoughtless of their origin. On these results depend the 
existence of man and the lower animals. No man should 
be ignorant of their production. 

In the early prosecution of the study, you will find, 
perhaps, nothing to relieve its tediousness ; but, when the 
foundation of agricultural knowledge is laid in your mind 
so thoroughly that you know the character and use of 
every stone, then may your thoughts build on it- fabrics 
of such varied construction, and so varied in their uses, 
that there will be opened to you a new world, even more 
wonderful and more beautiful than the outward world, 
which exhibits itself to the senses. Thus may you live 
two lives, each assisting in the enjoyment of the other. 

But you may ask the practical use of this, " The 
world is made up of little things," saith the proverb. So 
with the productive arts. The steam engine consists of 
many parts, each part being itself composed of atoms too 
minute to be detected by our observation. The earth 
itself, in all its solidity and life, consists entirely of atoms 



TO THE STUDENT. 

too small to be perceived by the naked eye, each, visible 
particle being an aggregation of thousands of constituent 
elements. The crop of wheat, which the farmer raises by 
his labor, and sells for money, is produced by a combina- 
tion of particles equally small. They are not mysteriously 
combined, nor irregularly, but each atom is taken from its 
place of deposit^ and carried to its required location in the 
living plant, by laws as certain as those which regulate the 
motion of the engine, or the revolutions of the earth. 

It is the business of the practical farmer to put to- 
gether these materials, with the assistance of nature. He 
may learn her ways, assist her action, and succeed ; or he 
may remain ignorant of her operations, often counteract 
her beneficial influences, and often fail. 

A knowledge of the inner world of material things 
about us will produce pleasure to the thoughtful, and profit 
to the practical. 



CONTENTS. 



SECTION FIRST. 

THE PLANT. 

PAGE, 

Chapter I. — Introduction, ....... 11 

*• 11. — Atmosphere, . . •/ . . . . 15 

" in. — Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, . . .23 

•• IV. — Inorganic Matter, 29 

" v.— Growth, 40 

" VI. — Proximate division of Plants, .... 43 
" YII. — Location of the Proximates, and variations in the 

Ashes of Plants, ..... 52 

" VIII. — Recapitulation, 56 



SECTION SECOND. 

THE SOIL. 

Chapter I. — Formation and Character of the Soil, , . 65 

" II. — Uses of Organic Matter, 7V 

" III. — Uses of Inorganic Matter, .... .84 



SECTION THIRD. 

manures. 

Chapter I. — Character and varieties of Manure, . . .93 
" TI. — Excrements of Animals, 96 



8 



CONTENTS. 



Chap. III. — Waste of Manure, 

" IV. — Absorbents, . 

" V. — Composting Stable Manure, 

" VI. — Different kinds of Animal Excrement, 

" VII. — Other Organic Manures, .... 

" VIII. — Mineral Manures, 

" IX. — Deficiencies of Soils, means of Restoration, etc., 
" X. — Atmospheric Fertilizers, ..... 
" XI. — Recapitulation, ...... 



PAGB. 

101 
109 
118 
126 
136 
149 
155 
197 
203 



SECTIOX FOURTH. 

MECHANICAL CULTIVATION, 

Chapter I. — Mechanical Character of the Soil, 
" II. — Under-draining, 
" III. — Advantages of Under-draining, . 
" IV.— Sub-soil Plowing, . 



209 
211 
217 
232 



V. — PJovring and other modes of Pulverizing the Soil, 239 
VI. — Rolling, Mulching, Weeding, etc., . . . 245 



SECTION FIFTH. 

ANALYSIS. 

Chapter I. — Nature of Analysis, 

" II. — Tables of Analysis, . ' . 



. 259 



The Practical Farmer, . 



Explanation of Terms , 



. 279 
. 287 



SECTION FIRST. 



THE PLANT. 



THE PLANT. 11 



SECTION FmST. 



THE PLAISTT. 



-•-•-^ 



CHAPTER I. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The object of cultivating the soil is to raise from it 
a crop oi plants. In order to cultivate with economy, 
we must raise the largest j^ossible quantity loith the 
least expense, and ivithout 'permanent injury to the 
soil. 

Before this can be done we must study the char- 
acter of plants, and learn their exact composition. 
They are not created by a mysterious power, they 
are merely made up of matters already in existence. 
They take up water containing food and other mat- 

What is the object of cultivating the soil ? 

"What is necessary in order to cultivate with economy \ 

Are plants created from nothing? 



12 THE PLANT. 

ters, and discharge from their roots those substances 
that are not required for their growth. It is neces- 
sary for us to know what kind of matter is required 
as food for the plant, and where this is to be obtained^ 
which we can learn only through such means as ^all 
sejoarate the elements of which plants are composed ; 
in other words, we must take them apartj and exam- 
ine the diflerent pieces of which they are formed. 

If we burn any vegetable substance it disappears, 
except a small quantity of earthy matter, which we 
call ashes. In this way we make an important 
division in the constituents of 2>lants. One portion 
dissipates into the atmosphere, and the other remains 
as ashes. 

That part which burns away during combustion 
is called organic matter ; the ashes are called mor- 
ganic matter. The organic matter has become air, 
and hence we conclude that it was originally obtained 
from air. The inorganic matter has become earth, 
and was obtained from the soil. 

This knowledge can do us no good except by the 
assistance of chemistry, which explains the proper- 
ties of each part, and teaches us where it is to be 
found. It is not necessary for farmers to become 
chemists. All that is required is, that they should 



What must we do to learn the composition of plants ? 
What takes place when vegetable matter is burned ? 
What do we call the two divisions produced by burning? 
Where does organic matter originate ? Inorganic ? 
How much of chemistry should farmers know ? 



THE PLANT. 13 

know enough of chemistry to understand the nature 
of the materials of which their crops are composed, 
and how those materials are to be used to the best 
advantage. 

This amount of knowledge may be easily acquir- 
ed, and should be possessed by every person, old or 
young, whether actually engaged in the cultivation 
of the soil or not. All are dependent on vegetable 
productions, not only for food, but for every comfort 
and convenience of life. It is the object of this book 
to teach children the first principles of agriculture : 
and it contains all that is absolutely necessary to an 
understanding of the practical operations of cultiva- 
tion, etc. 

We will first examine the organic part of plants, 
or that which is driven away during combustion or 
burning. This matter, though apparently lost, is 
only changed in form. 

It consists of one solid substance, carbon (or 
charcoal), and three gases, oxygen, hydrogen and 
nitrogeii. These four kinds of matter constitute 
nearly the whole of most plants, the ashes forming 
often less than one part in one hundred of their dry 
weight. 

When wood is burned in a close vessel, or other- 
wise protected from the air, its carbon becomes char- 
coal. All plants contain this substance, it forming 

Is organic matter lost after combustion ? 

Of what does it consist ? 

How large a part of plants is carbon 



14 THE PLANT. 

usually about one half of their dry weight. The re- 
mainder of their organic part consists of the three 
gases named above. By the word gas, we mean air. 
Oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, when pure, are al- 
ways in the form of air. Oxygen has the power 
of uniting with many substances, forming compounds 
which are different from either of their constituents 
alone. Thus : oxygen unites with ^Vo?^ and forms 
oxide of iron or iron-rustj which does not resemble 
the gray metallic iron nor the gas oxygen ; oxygen 
unites with carbon and forms carbonic acid, which 
is an invisible gas, but not at all like pure oxygen ; 
oxygen combines with hydrogen and forms water. 
All of the water, ice, steam, etc., are composed of 
these two gases. We know this because we can ar- 
tificially decompose, or separate, all water, and obtain 
as a result simply oxygen and hydrogen, or we can 
combine these two gases and thus form pure water ; 
oxygen combines with nitrogen and forms nitric 
acid. These chemical changes and combinations 
take j)lace only under certain circumstances, which, 
so far as they affect agriculture, will be considered in 
the following pages. 

As the organic elements of plants are obtained 
from matters existing in the atmosphere which sur- 
rounds our globe, we will examine its constitution. 



What do we mean by gas ? 

Does oxygen unite with other substances ? 

Give some instances of its combinations 



THE PLANT. 1^ 



CHAPTER II. 

ATMOSPHERE. 

Atmospheric air is composed of oxygen and nitrogen. 
Their proportions are, one part of oxygen to four 
parts of nitrogen. Oxygen is tlie active agent in 
the combustion, decay, and decomposition of orga- 
nized bodies (those which have possessed animal or 
vegetable life, that is, organic matter), and others 
also, in the breathing of animals. Experiments have 
proved that if the atmosphere consisted of pure oxy- 
gen every thing would be speedily destroyed, as the 
processes of combustion and decay would be gi-eatly 
accelerated, and animals would be so stimulated that 
death would soon ensue. The use of the nitrogen in 
the air is to dilute the oxygen, and thus reduce the 
intensity of its effect. 

Besides these two great elements, the atmosphere 
contains certain impurities which are of great im- 
portance to vegetable growth ; these are, carhonio 
acid, ivater, ammonia, etc. 



What is atmospheric air composed of? 

In what proportions ? 

What is the use of nitrogen in air ? 

Does the atmosphere contain other matters useful to vegetation? 

What are they ? 



16 THE PLANT. 



CARBONIC ACID. 



Carbonic acid is in all probability the only source 
of the carbon of plants, and consequently is of more 
importance to vegetation than any other single sort of 
food. It is a gas, and is not, under natural circum- 
stances, perceptible to our senses. It constitutes 
about 2 jVo of the atmosphere, and is found in com- 
bination with many substances in nature. Marble, 
limestone and chalk, are carbonate of lime, or car- 
bonic acid and lime in combination ; and carbonate 
of magnesia is a compound of carbonic acid and 
magnesia. This gas exists in combination with 
many other mineral substances, and is contained in 
all water not recently boiled. Its supply, though 
small, is sufficient for the purposes of vegetation. It 
enters the plant in two ways — through the roots in 
the water which goes to form the sap, and at the 
leaves, which absorb it from the air in the form of 
gas. The leaf of the plant seems to have three 
offices : that of absorbing carbonic acid from the at- 
mosphere — that of assisting in the chemical prepara- 
tion of the sap — and that of evaporating its water. 
If we examine leaves with a microscope we shall find 
that some have as many as 170,000 openings, or 

What is the source of the carbon of plants? 

What is carbonic acid ? 

What is its proportion in the atmosphere ? 

Where else is it found ? 

How does it enter the plant? 

What are the offices of leaves ? '' 



THE PLANT. 17 

mouths, in a square inch ; others have a much less 
number. Usually, the pores on the under side of 
the leaf absorb the carbonic acid. This absorptive 
power is illustrated when we apply the lower side of 
a cabbage leaf to a wound, as it draws strongly — the 
other side of the leaf has no such action. Young 
sprouts may have the power of absorbing and decom- 
posing carbonic acid. 

The roots of plants terminate at their ends in 
minute spongioles, or mouths for the absorption of 
fluids containing nutriment. In these fluids there 
exist greater or less quantities of carbonic acid, and 
a considerable amount of this gas enters into the 
circulation of the plants and is carried to those parts 
where it is required for decomposition. Plants, un- 
der favorable circumstances, may thus obtain about 
one-third of their carbon. 

Carbonic acid, it will be recollected, consists of 
carhon and oxygen, while it supplies only carbon 
to the plant. It is therefore necessary that it be 
divided, or decomposed, and that the carbon be re- 
tained while the oxygen is sent off again into the 
atmosphere, to reperform its office of uniting with 
carbon. This decomposition takes place in the green 



What parts of roots absorb food ? 

How much of their carbon may plants receive through their 
roots ? 

"What change does carbonic acid undergo after entering the 
plant? 

In what parts of the plant, and under wliat influence, is car- 
bonic acid decomposed ? 



18 THE PLANT. 

parts of plants and only under the influence of day- 
light. It is not necessary that the sun shine directly 
on the leaf or green shoot, but this causes a more 
rapid decomposition of carbonic acid, and conse- 
quently we find that plants which are well exposed 
to the sun's rays make the most rapid growth. 

The fact that light is essential to vegetation ex- 
plains the conditions of different latitudes, which, so 
far as the assimilation of carbon is concerned, are 
much the same. At the Equator the days are but about 
twelve hours long. Still, as the growth of plants is 
extended over eight or nine months of the year, the 
duration of daylight is sufficient for the requirements 
of a luxuriant vegetation. At the Poles, on the con- 
trary, the summer is but two or three months long ; 
here, however, it is daylight all summer, and jDlants 
from continual growth develop themselves in that 
short time. 

It will be recollected that carbonic acid consti- 
tutes but about 25V0 of the air, yet, although 
about one half of all the vegetable matter in the 
world is derived from this source, as well as all of the 
carbon required by the growth of plants, its propor- 
tion in the atmosphere is constantly about the same. 
In order that we may understand this, it becomes 
necessary for us to consider the means by which 
it is formed. Carbon, by the aid of fire, is made to 

Explain the condition of different latitudes. 
Does the proportion of carbonic acid in the atmosphere remain 
about the same? 



THE PLANT. 19 

unite with oxygen, and always when bodies contain- 
ing carbon are burnt luitli the presence of atmospheric 
air, the oxygen of that air unites with the carbon, 
and forms carbonic acid. The same occurs when 
bodies containing carbon d^ecay, as this is simply a 
slower hurni7ig and produces the same results. The 
respiration (or breathing) of animals is simply the 
union of the carbon of the blood with the oxygen of 
the air drawn into the lungs, and their breath, when 
thrown out, always contains carbonic acid. From 
this we see that the reproduction of this gas is the 
direct effect of the destruction of all organized bodies, 
whether by fire, decay, or consumption by animals. 

Furnaces are its wholesale manufactories. Every 
cottage fire is continually producing a new supply, and 
the blue smoke issuing from the cottage-chimney, as 
described by so many poets, possesses a new beauty, 
when we reflect that besides indicating a cheerful 
fire on the hearth, it contains materials for making; 
food for the cottager's tables and new faggots for his 
fire. The wick of every burning lamp draws up the 
carbon of the oil to be made into carbonic acid at 
the flame. All matters in process of combustion, 
decay, fermentation, or putrefaction, are returning to 
the atmosphere those constituents, wliich they ob- 
tained from it. Every living animal, even to the 
smallest insect, by respiration, spends its life in the 

Explain some of the operations in which this reproduction takes 
place. 

How is it reproduced ? 



20 THE PLANT. 

production of this material necessary to the growth of 
plantSj and at death gives up its body in part for 
such formation by decay. 

Thus we see that there is a continual change from 
the carbon of plants to air, and fi'om air back to 
plants, or through them t^ animals. As each dollar 
in gold that is received into a country permanently 
increases its amount of circulating medium, and each 
dollar sent out permanently decreases it until re- 
turned, so the carbonic acid sent into the atmosphere 
by burning, decay, or respiration, becomes a permanent 
stock of constantly changeable material, until it shall 
be locked up for a time, as in a house which may last 
for centuries, or in an oak tree which may stand for 
thousands of years. Still, at the decay of either of 
these, the carbon which they contain must be again 
resolved into carbonic acid. 

The coal-beds of Pennsylvania are mines of 
carbon once abstracted from the atmosphere by 
plants. In these coal-beds are often found fern 
leaves, toads, whole trees, and in short all forms of 
organized matter. These all existed as living things 
before the great floods, and at the breaking away of 
the barriers of the immense lakes, of which our pre- 
sent lakes were merely the deep holes in their beds, 
they were washed away and deposited in masses so 
great as to take fire from their chemical changes. 



What are the coal-beds of Pennsylvania ? 
Wh at are often found in them ? 



THE PLANT. 21 

It is by many supposed that this fire acting through- 
out the entire mass (without the presence of air to 
su^ophj oxygen except on the surface) caused it to 
become melted ca^-bon, and to flow around those 
bodies which still retained their shapes, changing 
them to coal without destroying their structures. 
This coal, so long as it retains its present form, is 
lost to the vegetable kingdom, and each ton that is 
burned, by being changed into carbonic acid, adds to 
the ability of the atmosphere to support an increased 
amount of vegetation. 

Thus we see that, in the provisions of nature, 
carl)on, the grand basis, on which all organized 
matter is founded, is never permanent in any of 
its forms. Oxygen is the carrier wliich enables it to 
change its condition. For instance, let us sup- 
pose that we have a certain quantity of char- 
coal ; this is nearly pure carbon. We ignite it, and 
it unites with the oxygen of the air, becomes carbonic 
acid, and floats away into the atmosphere. The 
wind carries it throus;h a forest, and the leaves of the 
trees with their millions of mouths drink it in. By 
the assistance of light it is decomposed, the oxygen 
is sent ofl' to make more carbonic acid, and the carbon 
is retained to form a part of the tree. So long as that 
tree exists in the form of wood, the carbon will re- 



Explain the manner in w])ich they become coal. 
How does the burninii; of coal benefit vegetation ? 
Is carbon ever permanent in any of its forms ? 
What enables it to change its condition? 



22 THE PLANT. 

mam unaltered, but when the wood decays, or is 
burned, it immediately takes the form of carbonic 
acid, and mingles with the atmosphere ready to be 
again taken up by plants, and have its carbon de- 
posited in the form of vegetable matter. 

The blood of animals contains carbon derived 
from their food. This unites with the oxygen of the 
air drawn into the lungs and forms carbonic acid. 
Without this process, animals could not live. Thus, 
while by the natural operation of breathing, they 
make carbonic acid for the uses of the vegetable 
world, plants, in taking up carbon, throw off oxygen 
to keep up the life of animals. There is perhaps no 
way in which we can better illustrate the changes of 
form in carbon than by describing a simple experiment. 
Take a glass tube filled with oxygen gas, and 
put in it a lump of charcoal, cork the ends of the 
tube tightly, and pass through the corks the wires of 
an electrical battery. By passing a stream of electri- 
cal fluid over the charcoal it may be ignited, when it 
will burn with great brilliancy In burning it is dis- 
solved in the oxygen forming carbonic acid, and dis- 
appears. It is no more lost, however, than is the 
carbon of wood which is burned in a stove ; although 
invisible, it is still in the tube, and ma}^ be detected 
by careful weighing. A more satisfactory proof of its 
presence may be obtained by decomposing the car- 
Give an instance of such change. 
How do plants and animals benefit each other ? 
Describe the experiment with the glass tube. 



THE PLANT. 23 

bonic acid by drawing the wires a short distance apart, 
and giving a spark of electricity. This immediately 
separates the oxygen from the carbon which forms a 
dense black smoke in the tube. By pushing the 
corks together we may obtain a wafer of charcoal of 
the same weight as the piece introduced. In this 
experiment we have changed carbon from its solid 
form to an invisible gas and back again to a solid, 
thus fully rei^resenting the continual chan-ges of this 
substance in the destruction of organic matter and 
the growth of plants. 



-•♦-♦- 



CHAPTER III. 

HYDKOGEN. OXYGEN AND NITROGEN. 
HYDROGEN AND OXYGEN. 

Let us now consider the three gases, hydrogen, 
oxygen and nitrogen, which constitute the remainder 
of the organic part of plants. 

Hydrogen and oxygen compose water, which, if 
analyzed, yields simply these two gases. Plants per- 
form such analysis, and in this way are able to ob- 
tain a sufficient supply of these materials, as their 

What is water composed ofl 

If analyzed, what does it yield? 

How do plants obtain their hydrogen and oxygen? 



\ 



24 THE PLANT. 

isap is composed chiefly of water. Whenever vege- 
table matter is destroyed by burning, decay, or 
otherwise, its liydrogen and oxygen unite and form 
water, which is parted with usually in the form of an 
invisible vapor. The atmosphere of course contains 
greater or less quantities of watery vapor arising from 
this cause and from the evaporation of liquid water. 
This vapor condenses, forming rains, etc. ^ 

Hydrogen and oxygen are never taken into con- 
sideration in manuring lands, as they are so readily 
obtained from the water constituting the sap of the 
plant, and consequently should not occupy our atten- 
tion in this book. 

NITROGEN. 

Nitrogen^ the only remaining organic constituent 
of vegetable matter, is for many reasons worthy of close 
attention. 

1 . It is necessary to the growth and perfection of 
all cultivated plants. 

2. It is necessary to the formation of animal 
muscle. 

3. It is often deficient in the soil. 

4. It is liable to be easily lost from manures. 
Although about four fifths of atmospheric air 

are pure nitrogen, it is almost certain that plants 

If vegetable matter be destroyed, what becomes of these con- 
stituents? 

What is the remaining organic constituent? 

Why is it worthy of close attention? 

Do plants appropriate the nitrogen of the atmosphere? 



THE PLANT. 25 

get no nutriment at all from this som'ce. It is all 
obtained from some of its compounds, chiefly from 
the one called ammonia. Nitric acid is also a source 
from which plants may obtain nitrogen, though to 
the farmer of less importance than ammonia. 



AMMONIA. 

Ammonia is composed of nitrogen and hydrogen. 
It has a pungent smell and is familiarly known as 
hartshorn. The same odor is perceptible around 
stables and other places where animal matter is de- 
composing. All animal muscle, certain parts of 
plants, and other organized substances, consist of 
compounds containing nitrogen. When these com- 
pounds undergo combustion, or are in any manner 
decomposed, the nitrogen which they contain usually 
unites with hydrogen, and forms ammonia. In con- 
sequence of this the atmosphere always contains 
more or less of this gas, arising from the decay, etc., 
which is continually going on all over the world. 

This ammonia in the atmosphere is the capital 
stock to which all plants, not artificially manured, 
must look for their suyjply of nitrogen. As they can 
take up ammonia only through their roots, we must 

What is tl'.e piinoipal source from which they obtain nitrogeu ? 

Wliat is ammonia ? 

How is it formed ? 

Where does it always exist ? 

How do plants take up ammonia ? 

2 



26 THE PLANT. 

discover some means by which it may be conveyed 
from the atmosphere to the soil. 

Water may be made to absorb many times its 
bulk of this gas, and water with which it comes in 
contact will immediately take it up. Spirits of 
hartshorn is merely water through which ammonia 
has been passed until it is saturated. •''" This power 
of water has a direct application to agriculture, 
because the water constituting rains, dews, &c.,- 
absorbs the ammonia which the decomposition of 
nitrogenous matter had sent into the atmosphere, 
and we find that ail rain, snow and dew, contain 
ammonia. This fact may be chemically proved in 
various ways, and is perceptible in the common 
oi^erations of nature. Every person must have 
noticed that when a summer's shower falls on the 
plants in a flower garden, they commence their 
growth with fresh, vigor while the blossoms become 
larger and more richly colored. This effect cannot be 
produced by watering with spring water, unless it be 
previously mixed with ammonia, in which case the 
result will be the same. 

Although ammonia is a gas and pervades the 
atmosphere, few, if any, plants can take it up, as 

* By saturated, we mean that it contains all that it is capable 
of holding. 



Docs water absorb it ? 

What is spirits of hartshorn ? 

Why is this power of water important in agriculture? 

What instance may be cited to prove this? 



THE PLANT. 27 

they do carbonic acid, through their leaves. It 
must all enter through the roots in solution in the 
water which goes to form the sap. Although the 
amount received from the atmosphere is of great 
importance, there are few cases where artificial ap- 
plications are not beneficial. The value of farm-yard 
and other animal manures, depends chiefly on the 
ammonia which they yield on decomposition. This 
subject, also the means for retaining in the soil the 
ammoniacal parts of fertilizing matters, will be fully 
considered in the section on manures. 

After ammonia has entered the plant it may 
be decomposed, its hydrogen sent off, and its 
nitrogen retained to answer the purposes of growth. 
The changes which nitrogen undergoes, fi'om plants 
to animals, or, by decomposition, to the form of 
ammonia in the atmosphere, are as varied as those of 
carbon and the constituents of water. The same 
little atom of nitrogen may one year form a part of a 
plant, and the next become a constituent of an animal, 
or, with the decomposed dead animal, may form a 
]3art of the soil. If the animal should fall into the 
sea he may become food for fishes, and our atom of 
nitrogen may form a part of a fish. That fish may 
be eaten by a larger one, or at death may become 



Can plants use more ammonia than is received from the atmos- 
phere ? 

On what does the value of animal manure chiefly depend ? 
What changes take place after ammonia enters the plant ? 
May the same atom of nitrogen perform many different offices? 



28 THE PLANT. 

food for the whale, through the marine insect, on 
which it feeds. After the abstraction of the oil from 
the whale, the nitrogen may, by the putrefaction of 
his remains, be united to hydrogen, form ammonia, 
and escape into the atmosphere. From here it may 
be brought to the soil by rains, and enter into the 
composition of a plant, from which, could its parts 
speak as it lies on our table, it could tell us a wonder- 
ful tale of travels, and assure us that, after wander- 
ing about in all sorts of places, it had returned to 
us the same little atom of nitrogen which we had 
owned twenty years before, and which for thousands 
of years had been continually going through its 
changes. 

The same is true of any of the organic or in- 
organic constituents of plants. They are performing 
their natural offices, or are lying in the earth, or 
floating in the atmosphere, ready to be lent to any 
of their legitimate uses, sure again to be returned to 
their starting point. 

Thus no atom of matter is ever lost. It may 
change its place, but it remains for ever as a part of 
the capital of nature. 

Is the same true of the other constituents of plants? 
Is any atom of matter ever lost ? 



THE PLANT. 29 



CHAPTER IV. 

INORGANIC MATTER. 

We will now examine the ashes left after burning 
vegetable substances. This we have called inorganic 
matter, and it is obtained from the soil. Organic 
matter, although forming so large a part of the plant, 
we have seen to consist of four different substances. 
The inorganic portion, on the contrary, although 
forming so small a part, consists of no less than nine 
or ten different kinds of matter.''-' These we will 
consider in order. In their relations to agriculture 
they may be divided into three classes — alkalies, acids, 
and neutrals. -f 

Alkalies and acids are of opposite properties, and 
when brought together they unite and neutralize 
each other, forming compounds which are neither al- 
kaline nor acid in theu^ character. Thus, carbonic 
acid (a gas,) unites with lime — a burning, caustic 
substance — and forms marble, which is a hard taste- 

* Bromine, iodine, etc., are sometimes dete«ted in particular 
plants, but need act occupy the attention of the farmer. 

f This classification is not strictly scientific, but it is one which 
the ieainer will find it well to adopt. These bodies are called 
neutrals because they have no decided alkaline or acid character. 



What are ashes called? 

How many kinds of matter are there in the ashes of plants? 

Into what three classes may they be divided ? 

What takes place when alkalies and acids are brought together ? 



30 THE PLANT. 

less stone. Alkalies and acids are characterized by 
their desire to unite with each other, and the com- 
pounds thus formed have many and various proper- 
ties, so that the characters of the constituents give 
no indication of the character of the compound. 
For instance, lime causes the gases of animal manure 
to escape, while sulphate of hme (a compound of 
sulphuric acid and hme) produces an opposite efiect, 
and prevents their escape. 

The substances coming under the signification of 
neutrals, are less affected by the laws of combination, 
still they often combine feebly with other substances, 
and some of the resultant compounds are of great 
importance to agriculture. 



ALKALIES. 

The alkalies which are found in the ashes of 
plants are four in number ; they are 2^otash, soda, 
lime and magnesia. 

POTASH. 

When we pour water over wood ashes it dissolves 
the potash which they contain, and carries it through 

Is the character of a compound the same as that of its con- 
st vients ? 

Give an instance of this. 

Do neutrals combine with other substances ? 

N^ame the four alkalies found in the ashes of plants. 



THE PLANT. 31 

in solution. This solution is called ley, and if it be 
boiled to dryness it leaves a solid substance from 
which pure potash may be made. Potash left ex- 
posed to the air absorbs carbonic acid and becomes 
carbonate of potash, or pearlash ; if another atom of 
carbonic acid be added, it becomes super-carbonate of 
potash, or salcerattcs. Potash has many uses in agri- 
culture. 

1. It forms a constituent of nearly all plants. 

2. It unites with silica (a neutral), and forms a 
compound which water can dissolve and carry into 
the roots of plants ; thus supplying them with an 
ingredient which gives them much of their strength.'-'^ 

3. It is a strong agent in the decomposition of 
vegetable matter, and is thus of much importance in 
preparing manures. 

4. It roughens the smooth round particles of 
sandy soils, and prevents their compacting, as they 
are often liable to do. 

5. It is also of use in killino; certain kinds of 
insects, and, when artificially applied, in smoothing 
the bark of fruit trees. 

The source from which this and the other inor- 

* In some soils the fluorides undoubtedly supply plants with 
soluble silicates, as fluoric acid has the power of dissolving silica. 
Thus, in Derbyshire (England), where the soil is supplied with 
fluoric acid, grain is said never to lodge. 



How may we obtain potash from ashes ? 
What are some of its agricultural uses ? 



32 THE PLANT, 

ganic matters required are to be obtained, will be 
fully considered in the section on manures. 



SODA. 

Soda, one of the alkalies contained in the ashes 
of plants, is very much the same as potash in its- 
agricultural character. Its uses are the same as 
those of potash — ^before enumerated. Soda exists 
very largely in nature, as it forms an important part 
of common salt, whether in the ocean or in those in- 
land deposits known as rock salt. When combined 
with sulphuric acid it forms sulphate of soda or Glaii- 
ber's salts. In combinatioQ with carbonic acid, as 
carbonate of soda, it forms the common washing soda 
of the shops. It is often necessary to render soils fertile, 

LIME, 

JLime is in many ways important in agriculture : 

1. It is a constituent of plants and animals. 

2. It assists in the decomposition of vegetable 
matter in the soil. 

3. It corrects the acidity* of sour soils. 

* Sournesa. 
~i ' " ~ ^ 

"Where is soda found most largely ? 
What is Glauber's salts? 
What is washing eoda? 
What are some of the uses of lime ? 



THE PLANT. 33 

4. As chloride or sulphate of lime it is a good 
absorbent of fertilizing gases. 

In nature it usually exists in the form of car- 
bonate of lime : that is, as marble, limestone, and 
chalk — these all being of the same composition. In 
manufacturing caustic (or quick) lime, it is customary 
to burn the carbonate of lime in a kiln ; bv this 
means the carbonic acid is thrown off into the atmo- 
sphere and the lime remains in a pure or caustic state. 
A French chemist states that every cubic yard of 
limestone that is burned, throws off ten thousand 
cubic yards of carbonic acid, which may be used by 
plants. This reminds us of the story of Sinbad the 
sailor, where we read of the immense genii who came 
out of a very small box by the seashore, much to the 
surprise of Sinbad, who could not believe his eyes, 
until the genie changed himself into a cloud of smoke 
and went into the box again. Sinbad fastened the 
lid, and the genie must have remained there until the 
box was destroyed. 

Now man is very much like Sinbad, he lets the 
carbonic acid out from the limestone (when it ex- 
pands and becomes a gas) ; and then he raises a 
crop, the leaves of which drink it in and pack the 
carbon away in a very small compass as vegetable 
matter. Ilere it must remain until the plant is de- 



How is caustic lime made ? 

How much carbonic acid is thus liberated? 

How does man resemble Sinbad the sailor ? 



34 - THE PLANT. 

stroyecl, when it becomes carbonic acid again^ and 
occupies just as much space as ever. 

The burning of limestone is a very prolific source 
of carbonic acid. 



MAGNESIA. 

Magnesia is the remaining alkali of vegetable 
ashes. It is well known as a medicine, both in the 
form of calcined magnesia, and, when mixed with sul- 
phuric acid, as epsom salts. 

Magnesia is necessary to nearly all plants, but 
too much of it is j^oisonous, and it should be used 
with much care, as many soils already contain a suf- 
ficient quantity. It is often found in limestone rocks 
(that class called dolomites), and the injurious effects 
of some kinds of lime, as well as the barrenness of 
soils made from dolomites, may be attributed entirely 
to the fact that they contain too much magnesia. 



ACIDS. 
PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

Phosplioi'ic acid. — This subject is one of the 
greatest interest to the farmer. Phosphoric acid 

What do you know about magnesia? 

Wliat is phosphoric acid composed of? 

With what substance does it form its most important compound ? 



THE PLANT. 35 

is composed of phosphorus and oxygen. The 
end of a loco-foco match contains phosphorus, and 
when it is lighted it unites with the oxygen of the 
atmosphere and forms phosphoric acid ; this consti- 
tutes the white smoke which is seen for a moment 
before the sulphur commences burning. Being an 
acidj this substance has the power of combining with 
any of the alkalies. Its most imj^ortant compound 
is with lime. 

Phospliate of lime forms about Qb per cent, 
of the dry weight of the bones of all animalSj and 
it is all derived from the soil throuo'h the medium 
of plants. As plants are intended as food for 
animals, nature has provided that they shall not 
attain their perfection without taking up a sup- 
ply of phosphate of lime as well as of the other 
earthy matters ; consequently, there are many soils 
which will not produce good crops, simpl}^ because 
they are deficient in phosphate of lime. It is one of 
the most important ingredients of manures, and its 
value is dependent on cei'tain conditions which will 
be hereafter explained. 

Another use of phosphoric acid in the plant is 
to supply it with a small amount of loliospJiorus, 
which seems to be required in the formation of the 
seed. 



"Will soils, deficient in phosphate of lime, produce good crops? 
From what soin"ce do plants obtain their phosphorus ? 



36 I'HE PLANT. 



SULPHURIC ACID. 

Sulpliuy^ic acid is important to vegetation and is 
often needed to render soils fertile. It is composed 
of sulphur and oxygen, and is made for manufactur- 
ing purposes, by burning sulphur. With lime it forms 
sul]f)hate of limey which is gypsum or ^ plaster.' In 
this farm it is often faund in nature, and is generally 
Used in agriculture. Other important methods for 
supplying sulphuric acid will be described hereafter. 
It gives to the plant a small portion of siilplniTj 
which is necessary to the formation, of some of its 
parts. 

NEUTRALS. 

« 

SILICA. 

This is sand, the base of flint. It is necessary 
for the growth of all plants, as it gives them much 
of their strength. In connection with an alkali it 
constitutes the hard shining surface of corn stalks, 
straw, etc. Silica unites with the alkalies and forms 
compounds, such as silicate of potash, silicate of 
soda, etc., which are soluble in water, and therefore 

What is sulphuric acid composed of? 

"What is plaster? 

What is silica? 

Why is it ni^cessavy to the growth of plants? 

What compounds does it form with alkalies? 



THE PLANT. 37 

available to plants. If we roughen a corn stalk 
with sand-paper we may sharpen a knife upon it. 
This is owing to the hard particles of silica which it 
contains. Window glass is silicate of potash, ren- 
dered insoluble by additions of arsenic and litharge. 

Liebig tells us that some persons discovered, 
between Manheim and Heidelbero- in Germ^nv, a 
mass of melted glass where a hay-stack had been 
struck by lightning. They supposed it to be a 
meteor, but chemical analysis showed that it was only 
the compound of silica and potash which served to 
strengthen the grass. 

There is always enough silica in the soil, but it 
is often necessary to add an alkali to render it avail- 
able. When grain, etc., lodge or fall down from 
their own weight, it is altogether probable that they 
are unable to obtain from the soil a sufficient supply 
of the soluble silicates, and some form of alkali 
should be added to the soil to unite with the sand 
and render it soluble. " 



CHLORINE. 

Chlorine is an important ingredient of vegetable 
ashes, and is often required to restore the balance to 

How can you prove its existence in corn stalks? 

What instance does Liebig give to show its existence in grass? 

How do we supply silicates? 

"Why does grain lodge? 

What is the most important compound of chlorine ? 



38 THE PLANT. 

the soil. It is not found alone in nature, but is 
always in combination with other substances. Its 
most important compound is with sodium, forming 
cJiloride of sodium (or common salt). Sodium is the 
base of soda, and common salt is usually the best 
source from which to obtain both soda and chlorine. 
Chlorine unites with lime and forms cldoride of Ufne, 
which is much used to absorb the unpleasant odors 
of decayino^ matters, and in this character it is of use 
in the treatment of manures. 



OXIDE OF IRON. 

Oxide of iro7i, one of the constituents of ashes, is 
. common iron rust. Ito7i itself is naturally of a 
grayish color, but when exposed to the atmosphere, 
it readily absorbs oxygen and forms a reddish com- 
pound. It is in this form that it usually exists in 
nature, and many soils as well as the red sandstones 
are colored by it. It is seldom, if ever, necessary to 
apply this as a manure, there being usually enough 
of it in the soil. 

This red oxide of iron, of which we have been 
speaking, is called by chemists the peroxide. There 
is another compound which contains less oxygen than 



Of what use is chloride of lime? 
What is oxide of iron ? 

What is the difference between the peroxide and the ^ro^oxide 
of iron ? 



THE PLANT. 



39 



this, and is called the protoxide of iron, which is 
poisonous to plants. When it exists in the soil it is 
necessary to use such means of cultivation as shall 
expose it to the atmosphere and allow it to take up 
more oxygen and become the peroxide. The black 
scales which fly from hot iron when struck by the 
blacksmith's hammer are protoxide of iron. 

The peroxide of iron is a very good absorbent of 
ammonia, and consequently, as will be hereafter 
described, adds to the fertility of the soil. 

Oxide of Manganese, though often found in small 
quantities in the ashes of cultivated plants, cannot 
be considered indispensable. 

Havins: now examined all of the materials from 
which the ashes of plants are formed, we are enabled 
to classify them in a simple manner, so that they may 
be recollected. They are as follows : — 



ALKALIES. 


ACIDS. 


NEUTRALS. 


Potash. 


Sulphuric acid. 


Silica. 


Soda. 


Phosphoric " 


Chlorine. 


Lime. 


• 


Oxide of Iron. 


Magnesia. 




" Manganese 



* There is reason to suppose ^ that alumina is an essential 
constituent of many plants. 



What can you say of the oxide of manganese ? 
How do you classify the inorganic constituents ? 



40 THE PLANT. 



CHAPTER V. 

GROWT H . 

Having examined tlie materials of which plants 
are made, it becomes necessary to discover how they 
are put together in the process of growth. Let us 
therefore suppose a young wheat-plant for instance 
to be in condition to commence independent growth. 

It consists of roots which are located in the soil ; 
leaves which are spread in the air, and a stem which 
connects the roots and leaves. This stem con- 
tains sap vessels (or tubes) which extend from the 
ends of the roots to the surfaces of the leaves, thus 
affording a j)assage for the sap, and consequently 
allowing the matters taken up to be distributed 
throughout the plant. 

It is necessary that the materials of which plants 
are made should be supphed in certain propor- 
tions, and at the same time. • For instance, carbon 
could not be taken up in large quantities by the 
leaves, unless the roots, at the same time, were re- 
ceiving from the soil those mineral matters which are 
necessary to growth. On the other hand, no con- 

Of what does a perfect yonnu: plant consist? 
How must the food of plants be supplied? 
Can carbon and earthy matter be taken up at separate etagea 
of growth, or must they both be supplied at ouce? 



THE PLANT. 41 

siderable amount of earthy matter could be appro- 
priated by the roots unless the leaves were obtaining 
carbon from the air. This same rule holds true with 
regard to all of the constituents required ; Nature 
seeming to have made it a law that if one of the 
important ingredients of the plant is absent, the 
others, though they may be present in sufficient 
quantities, cannot be used. Thus, if the soil is de- 
ficient in potash, and still has sufficient quantities 
of all of the other ingredients, the plant cannot take 
up these ingredients, because potash is necessary to 
its life. 

If a farmer wishes to make a cart he prepares his 
wood and iron, gets them all in the proper condition, 
and then can very readily put them together. But 
if he has all of the ivood necessary and no iron, he 
cannot mak-Q bis cart., because bolts, nails and screws 
are required, and their place cannot be supplied by 
boards. This sei'ves to illustrate the fact that in 
raising plants we must give them every thing that 
they require, or they will not grow at all. 

In the case of our young plant the following opera- 
tions are going on at about the same time. 

The leaves are absorbing carbonic acid from the 
atmosphere, and the roots are drinking in water from 
the soil. 



What seems to be nature's law -with regard to this? 
"What is the similaritj between making a cart and raisina; a crop.' 
In the growth of a j-oung plant, what operations take place 
about the same time ? 



42 THE PLANT. 

Under the influence of daj^liglit, the carbonic acid 
is decomposed ; its oxygen returned to the atmos- 
phere, and its carbon retained in the plant. 

The water taken in b}^ the roots circulates 
through the sap vessels of the plant, and, from 
various causes, is drawn up towards the leaves where 
it is evaporated. This water contains the nitrogen 
and the inorganic matter required by the plant and 
some carbonic acid, v/hile the water itself consists of 
hydrogen and oxygen. 

Thus we see that the plant obtains its food in the 
following manner : — 

Carbon. — In the form of carhonic acid from the 
atmosphere, and from that contained 
in the sap, the oxygen being returned 
to the air. 

' (^From the elements of the water con- 

\ stituting the sap. 
Hydrogen. ) 

Nitrogen. — From the soil (chiefly in form of am- 
monia). It is carried into the plant 
through the roots in solution in water. 

Inorganic ) From the soil, and only in solution 
Matter. ) in water. 



What becomes of the carbonic acid? 

How is the sap disposed of? 

What does it contain? 

How does the ph\nt obtain its carbon? 

Its oxygen and hydrogen ? 

Its nitrogen ? 

Its inorganic matter? 



THE PLANT. 43 

Many of the chemical changes which take place 
in the interior of the plant are well understood, but 
they require too much knowledge of chemistry to be 
easily comprehended by the young learner, and it is 
not absolutely essential that they should be under- 
stood by the scholar who is merely learning the 
elements of the science. 

It is sufficient to say that the food taken up by the 
plant undergoes such changes as are required for its 
growth ; as in animals, where the food taken into the 
stomach, is digested, and formed into bone, muscle, 
fat, hair, etc., so in the plant the nutritive portions of 
the sap are resolved into wood, bark, grain, or some 
other necessary part. 

The results of these changes are of the greatest 
importance in agriculture, and no person can call 
himself a practical farmer who does not thoroughly 
understand them. 



• • » 



CHAPTEK VI. 



PROXIMATE DIVISION OF PLANTS, ETC. 

We have hitherto examined what is called the 
ultimate division of plants. That is, we have looked 
at each one of the elements separately, and con- 
sidered its use m vegetable growth. 

— » ~ I - T - — 

What changes does the food takeu up by the plant undergo? 



44 THE PLANT. 

We will now examine another division of plants, 
called their proximate division. We know that 
plants consist of various substances, such as wood, 
gum, starch, oil, etc., and on examination we shall 
discover that these substances are composed of the 
various oi^ganic and inorganic ingredients described 
in the preceding chapters. They are made up almost 
entirely of organic matter, but their ashy parts, 
though very small, are (as we shall soon see) some- 
times of great importance. 

These compounds are called proximate ^:>W?ici- 
ples/'' or vegetable proximates. They may be di- 
vided into two classes. 

The first class are composed of carbon, hydrogen^ 
and oxygen. 

The second class contain the same substances 
and nitrogen. 

The first class (those compounds not containing 
nitrogen) comprise the wood, starch, gum, sugar, and 
fatty matter which constitute the greater part of all 
plants, also the acids which are found in sour fruits, 
etc. Various as are all of these things in their charac- 

* 'By proximate principle^ '^Q-m.^a.n that combination of vege- 
table elements which is known as a vegetable product, such as 
wood, etc. 

Of wliat do wood, starch and the other vegetable compounds 
chiefly consist? 

Are their small ashy parts important? 

What are these compounds called? 

Into how many classes ma}^ proximate principles be divided? 

Of what do the first class consist? The second? 

What vegetable compounds do the first class comprise ? 



THE PLANT. 45 

ters, they are entirely composed of the same ingre- 
dients (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen), and usually 
combined in about the same proportion. There may 
be a slight difference in the composition of their ashes, 
but the organic part is much the same in every case, 
so much so, that they can often be artificially changed 
from one to the other. 

As an instance of this, it may be recollected by 
those who attended the Fair of the American Insti- 
tute, in 1834, that Prof Mapes exhibited samples 
of excellent sugar made from the juice of the corn- 
stalk, starch, linen, and woody fibre. 

The ease with which these proximates may be 
changed from one to the other is their most impor- 
tant agricultural feature, and should be clearl}^ 
understood before proceeding farther. It is one of 
the fundamental principles on which the growth of 
both vegetables depends. 

The proximates of the firet class constitute usual- 
ly the greater part of all plants, and they are readily 
formed from the carbonic acid and water which in 
nature are so plentifully supplied. 

The second class of proximates^ though forming 
only a small part of the plant, are of the greatest 
importance to the farmer, being the ones from which 



Are these substances of about the same composition ? 
Can they be artificially changed from one to another? 
Give an instance of this. 

Is the ease with which these changes take place important? 
From what may the first class of proximates be formed ? 



46 THE PLANT. 

animal muscle'' is made. They consist, as will be re- 
collected, of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen, 
or of all of the organic elements of plants. They are 
all of much the same character, though each kind of 
plant has its peculiar form of this substance, which is 
known under the general name oi protein. 

The protein of wheat is called gluten — that of 
Indian corn is zein — that of beans and peas is legumin. 
In other plants the protein substances are vegetable 
albumen, casein, etc. 

Gluten absorbs large quantities of water, which 
causes it to swell to a great size, and become full of 
holes. Flour which contains much gluten, makes 
light, porous bread, and is preferred by bakers, 
because it absorbs so large an amount of water. 

The protein substances are necessary to animal 
and vegetable life, and none of our cultivated plants 
wiU attain maturity (complete their growth), unless 
allowed the materials required for forming this con- 
stituent. To furnish this condition is the object of 
nitrogen given to plants as manure. If no nitrogen 

* Muscle is lean meat, it gives to animals their strengtli and 
ability to perform labor. 



Why are those of the second class particulai'ly important to 
farmers ? 

What is the general name under which they are known ? 

What is the protein of wheat called? 

Why is flour containing much gluten preferred by bakers ? 

Can protein be formed without nitrogen ? 

If plants were allowed to complete their growth without a sup- 
ply of this ingredient, what would be the result? 



THE PLANT. 47 

is supplied the protein substances cannot be formed, 
and the plant must cease to grow. 

When on the contrary ammo7iia is given to the 
soil (by raini or otherwise), it furnishes nitrogen, 
while the carbonic acid and water yield the other 
constituents of protein, and a healthy growth con- 
tinues, provided that the soil contains the mineral 
matters required in the formation of the ash, in a 
condition to be useful. 

The wisdom of this jDrovision is evident when we 
recollect that the protein substances are necessary to 
the formation of muscle in animals, for if plants were 
allowed to complete their growth mthout a supply of 
this ingredient, our grain and hay might not be suffi- 
ciently well supplied with it to keep our oxen and 
horses in w^orkino; condition, while under the existino; 
law plants must be of nearly a uniform quality (in 
this respect), and if a field is short of nitrogen, its 
crop will not be large, and of a very poor quality, but 
the soil will produce good plants as long as the ni- 
trogen lasts, and then the growth must cease.'*' 

ANIMALS. 

That this principle may be clearly understood, it 
may be well to explain more fully the application of 

* This, of course, supposes that the soil is fertile in other respects. 



What is the result if a field be deficient in nitrogen? 



48 THE PLANT. 

the proximate constitutents of plants in feeding 
animals. 

Animals are composed (like plants) of organic 
and inorganic matter, and every thing necessary to 
build them up exists in plants. It seems to be 
the office of the vegetable world to prepare the gases 
in the atmosphere, and the minerals in the earth for 
the uses of animal life, and to effect this plants put 
these gases and minerals together in the form of the 
various proximates (or compound substances) which 
we have just described. 

In animals the compounds containing no nitrogen 
comprise the fatty substances, parts of ihQ blood, etc., 
while the protein compound, or those which do con- 
tain Qiiti'ogen, form the muscle, a part of the bones, 
the hair, and otEer portions of the animal. 

Animals contain a larger proportion of inorganic 
matter than plants do. Bones contain a large 
quantity of phosphate of lime, and we find other 
inorganic materials performing important offices in 
the system. 

In order that animals may be perfectly developed, 
they must of course receive as food all of the materials 
required to form their bodies. They cannot live if 
fed entirely on one ingredient. Thus, if starch alone 

Of what are the bodies of animsklw composed? 

What is the office of vegetation ? 

What part of the animal is formed from the first class of prox- 
imates? From the second ? 

Which contains the largest portions of inorganic matter, plants 
or animals ? 

Must animals have a variety of food, and why? 



TH^ PLANT. 49 

be eaten by the animal, he might hecome fat, but his 
strength would soon fail, because his food contains 
nothing to keep up the vigor of his inusdes. If on 
the contrary the food of an animal consisted entirely 
of gluten, he might be very strong from a superior de- 
velopment of muscle, but would not be fat. Hence 
we see that in order to keep up the proper proportion 
of both fat and muscle in our animals (or in ourselves), 
the food must be such as contains a proper proportion 
of the two kinds of proximates. 

It is for this reason that grain, such as wheat for 
instance, is so good for food. It contains bott 
classes of proximates, and furnishes material for tne 
formation of both fat and muscle. The value oijlour 
depends very much on the manner in which it is 
manufactured. This will be soon explained. 

Apart from the relations between the proximate 
principles of plants, and those of animals, there exists 
an important relation between their ashy or inorganio 
parts ; and, food in order to satisfy the demands of 
animal life, must contain the mineral matter required 
for the purposes of that life. Take bones for instance. 
If phosphate of lime is not always supplied in suffi- 
cient quantities by food, animals are prevented from 
the formation of healthy bones. This is particularly 



Why is grain good for food ? 
On what does the value of flour depend? 

Is there any relation between the ashy part of plants and 
ihose of animals ? 

How may we account for unhealthy bones and teeth ? 

8 



50 THE PLANT. 

to be noticed in teeth. Where food is deficient of 
phosphate of lime, we see poor teeth as a result. 
Some physicians have supposed that one of the causes 
of consumption is the deficiency of phosphate of lime 
in food. 

The first class of proximates (starch, sugar, gum, 
etc.), perform an important office in the animal 
economy aside from their use in making fat. They 
constitute the fuel which supplies the animars fire, 
and gives him his lieat. The lungs of men and other 
animals may be called delicate stoves, which supply 
the whole body with heat. But let us explain this 
matter more fully. If wood, starch, gum, or sugar, 
be burned in a stove, they produce heat. These 
substances consist, as will be recollected, of carbon, 
hydrogen, and oxygen, and when they are destroyed 
in any way (provided they be exposed to the atmos- 
phere), the hydrogen and oxygen unite and form 
water, and the carbon unites with the oxygen of the air 
and forms carbonic acid, as was explained in a pre- 
ceding chapter. This process is always accompanied 
by the liberation of Jieaty and the intensity of this 
heat depends on the time occupied in its production. 
In the case of decay, the chemical changes take place 
so slowly that the hea ':, being conducted away as soon 



"What is a probable cause of consumption ? 

What is an important use of the first class of proximates? 

"What may lungs be called ? 

Explain the production of heat during decomposition. 

Why is the heat produced by decay not perceptible? 



THE PLANT. 51 

as formed, is not perceptible to onr senses. In com- 
bustion (or burning) tbe same changes take place 
with much greater rapidity, and the same amount 
of heat being concentrated, or brought out in a 
far shorter time, it becomes intense, and therefore 
apparent. In the lungs of animals the same law holds 
true. The blood contains matters belonging to this 
carbonaceous class, and they undergo in the lungs the 
changes which have been described under the head of 
combustion and decay. Their hydrogen and oxygen 
unite, and form the moisture of the breath, while 
their carbon is combined with the oxygen of the air 
drawn into the lungs, and is thrown out as carbonic 
acid. The same consequence — heat — results in this, 
as in the other cases, and this heat is produced with 
sufficient rapidity for the animal necessities. When 
an animal exercises violently, his blood circulates 
with increased rapidity, thus carrying carbon more 
rapidly to the lungs. The breath also becomes 
quicker, thus sujDplying increased quantities of 
oxygen. In this way the decomposition becomes 
more rapid, and the animal is heated in proportion. 

Thus we see that food has another function 
besides that of forming animal matter, namely to 
supply heat. When the food does not contain a 
sufficient quantity of starch, sugar, etc., to answer 

Why is the heat produced by combustion apparent ? 
Explain the production of heat in the lungs of animals? 
"Why does exercise augment the animal heat? 
Under what circumstances is the animal's own fat used in the 
production of heat 'i 



52 THE PLANT. 

the demands of the system the animaVs own fat is 
carried to the lungs, and there used in the produc- 
tion of heat. This important fact will be referred to 
again. 



-•-•-•- 



CHAPTEE VII. 

LOCATION OF THE PROXIMATES AND VARIATIONS 
IN THE ASHES OF PLANTS. 

Let us now examine plants with a view to learn- 
ing the location of the various plants. 

The stem or trunk of the plant or tree consists 
almost entirely of looody fibre ; this also forms a large 
portion of the other parts except the seeds, and, in 
some instances, the roots. The roots of the potato 
contain large quanties of starch. Other roots such 
as the carrot and turnip contain pectic acid/-' a 
nutricious substance resembling starch. 

It is in the seed however that the more nutritive 
portions of most plants exist, and here they maintain 

* This pectic acid gelatinizes food in the stomach, and thus 
renders it more digestible. 



Of what proximate are plants chiefly composed? 

"What is the principal constituent of the potato root ? 

Of the carrot and turnip ? 

What part of the plant contains usually the mest nutriment f 



THE PLANT. 



53 



certain relative positions which it is well to under- 
stand, and which can be best explained by reference 
to the following figures, as described by Prof. 
Johnston : — 

Fig. 1. 



_^.Yt\.....,^_ 




" Thus a shows the position of the oil in the outer 
part of the seed — it exists in minute drops, inclosed 
in six-sided cells, which consists chiefly of gluten ; 5, 
the position and comparative quantity of the starch, 
which in the heart of the seed is mixed with only a 
small proportion of gluten ; c, the germ or cliit which 
contains muchgluten.^'''' 

The location of the inorganic part of plants is one 
of much interest, and shows the adaptation of each 
part to its particular use. Take a wheat plant, for 
instance — the stalk, the leaf, and the grain, show in 
their ashes, important difference of composition. 
The stalk or straw contains three or four times as 
large a proportion of ash as the grain, and a no less 
remarkable difference of composition may be noticed 

See Johnston's Elements, page 41. 

Is the composition of the inorganic matter of different parts of 
the plant the same, or different? 

What is the difference between the ash of the straw and that 
of the grain of wheat ? 



54 THE PLANT. 

in the ashes of the two parts. In that of the straw, 
we find a large proportion of silica and scarcely any 
phosphoric acid, while in that of the grain there is 
scarcely a trace of sihca, although phosphoric acid 
constitutes more than one half of the entire weight. 
The leaves contain a considerable quantity of lime. 

This may at first seem an unimportant matter, 
but on examination we shall see the use of it. The 
straw is intended to support the grain and leaves, 
and to convey the sap from the roots to the upper 
portions of the plant. To perform these offices, 
strength is required, and this is given by the silica, 
and the woody fibre which forms so large a propor- 
tion of the stalk. The sihca is combined with an 
alkali, and constitutes the glassy coating of the straw. 
While the plant is young, this coating is hardly ap- 
parent, but as it grows older, as the grain becomes 
heavier, (verging towards ripeness), the silicious 
coating of the stalk assumes a more prominent cha- 
racter, and gives to the straw sufficient strength to 
support the golden head. The straw is not the most 
important part of the plant as food, and therefore 
requires out little j)hosphoric acid. 

The grain, on the contrary, is especially intended 
as food, and therefore must contain a large propor- 
tion of phosphoric acid — this being, as we have al- 



Wbat is the reason for this difference ? 

In what part of the grain does phosphoric acid exist moat 
largely ? 



THE PLANT. 55 

ready learned, necessary to the formation of bone — 
while, as it has no necessity for strength, and as 
silica is not needed by animals,, this ingredient exists 
in the grain only in a very small proportion. It may 
be well to observe that the phosphoric acid of grain 
exists most largely in the hard portions near the 
shell, or braii. This is one of the reasons why Gra- 
ham flour is more wholesome than fine flour. It 
contains all of the nutritive materials which render 
the grain valuable as food, while flour which is very 
finely bolted "•••' contains only a small part of the outer 
portions of the grain (where the phosphoric acid, 
protein and fatty matters exist most largely). The 
starchy matter in the interior of the grain, which is 
the least capable of giving strength to the animal, is 
carefully separated, and used as food for man, while 
the better portions, not being ground so finely, are 
rejected. This one thing alone may be suflS.cient to 
accoimt for the fact, that the Uves of men have be- 
come shorter and less blessed with health and strength, 
than they were in the good old days when a stone 
mortar and a coarse sieve made a respectable flour 
mill. 

Another important fact concerning the ashes of 
plants is the difierence of their composition in difler- 
ent plants. Thus, the most prominent ingredient in 

* Sifted through a fine cloth called a bolting cloth. 

"Why is Graham flour more wholesome than fine flour ? 
Are the ashes of all plants the same in their composition 



56 THE PLANT. 

the ash of the potato is potash ; of wheat and other 
grsiins, 2^hosphoric acid ; of meadow hay, silica ; of 
clover, lime ; of beans, potash, etc. In grain, pot- 
ash (or soda), etc., are among the important ingre- 
dients. 

These differences are of great importance to the 
practical farmer, as by "understanding what kind of 
plants use the most of one ingredient, and what kind 
requires another in large proportion, he can regulate 
his crops so as to prevent his soil from being exhaust- 
ed more in one ingredient than in the others, and 
can also manure his land with reference to the crop 
which he intends to grow. The- tables of analyses 
in the fifth section will point out these differences 
accurately. 



• • • 



CHAPTER VIIL 

RECAPITULATION. 

*- 

We have now learned as much about the plant as is 
required for our immediate uses, and we will care- 
fully reconsider the various points with a view to fix- 
ing them permanently in the mind. 

Plants are composed of organic and inorganic 
matter. 

Of what advantage are these differences to the farmer \ 
Of what are plants composed ? 



THE PLANT. 57 

Organic matter is that which burns away in the 
fire. Inorganic matter is the ash left after burning. 

The organic matter of plants consists of three 
gases, oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen, and one solid 
substance carbon (or charcoal). The inorganic 
matter of plants consists of potash, soda, lime, 
magnesia, sulphuric acid, phosphoric acid, chlorine, 
silica, oxide of iron, and oxide of manganese. 

Plants obtain their organic food as follows : — 
Oxygen and hydrogen from water, nitrogen from 
some compound containing nitrogen (chiefly from 
ammonia), and carbon from the atmosphere where it 
exists as carbonic acid — a gas. 

They obtain their inorganic food from the soil. 

The water which supplies oxygen and hydrogen 
to plants is readily obtained without the assistance 
of manures. 

Ammonia is obtained from the atmosphere, by 
being absorbed by rain and carried into the soil, and it 
enters plants through their roots. It may be artifi- 
cially supplied in the form of animal manure with 
profit. 

Carbonic acid is absorbed from the atmosphere by 
leaves, and decomposed in the green parts of plants 
under the influence of daylight ; the carbon is re- 



"What is organic matter ? Inorganic? 
Of what does organic matter consist? Inorganic? 
How do plants obtain their organic food ? 
How their inorganic? 

How is ammonia supplied? Carbonic acid ? 
3* 



58 ' THE PLANT. 

tained, and the oxygen is returned to the atmos- 
phere. 

When plants are destroyed by decay, or burning, 
their organic constituents pass away as water, 
ammonia, carbonic acid, etc., ready again to be taken 
up by other plants. 

The inorganic matters in the soil can enter the 
plant only when dissolved in water. Potash, soda, 
lime, and magnesia, are soluble in their pure 
forms. Magnesia is injurious when present in too 
large quantities. 

Sulphuric acid is often necessary as a manure, 
and is usually most available in the form of sulphate of 
lime or plaster. It is also valuable in its pure form 
to prevent the escape of ammonia from composts. 

Fhosjphoric acid is highly important, from its 
frequent deficiency in worn-out soils. It is available 
only under certain conditions which will be described 
in the section on manures. 

Silica is the base of common sand, and must be 
united to an alkali before it can be used by the plant, 
because it is insoluble except when so united. 

Chlorine is a constituent of common salt (chloride 



When plants are destroyed by combustion or decay, what be- 
comes of their constituents ? 

How does the inorganic matter enter the plant ? 

Are the alkalies soluble in their pure forms? 

"Which one of them is injurious when too largely present? 

How may sulphuric acid be supplied ? 

Is phosphoric acid important ? 

How must silica be treated ? 

From what source may we obtain chlorine ? 



THE PLANT. 59 

of sodium), and from this source may be obtained in 
sufficient quantities for manurial purposes. 

Oxide of iron is iron rust. There are two oxides 
of iron, th.Q peroxide (red) din.^ ih.Q protoxide (black). 
The former is a fertilizer, and the latter poisons 
plants. 

Oxide of manganese is often absent from the 
ashes of our cultivated plants. 

The food of plants, both organic and inorganic, 
must be supplied in certain proportions, and at the 
time when it is required. In the plant, this food 
undergoes such chemical changes as are necessary to 
growth. 

The compounds formed by these chemical com- 
binations are called p)roximates. 

Proximates are of two classes, those not con- 
taining nitrogen, and those which do contain it. 

The first class constitute nearly the whole plant. 

The second class, although small in quantity, are 
of the greatest importance ^ the farmer, as from 
them all animal muscle is made. 

Animals, like plants, are composed of both or- 
ganic and inorganic matter, and their bodies are 
obtained directly or indirectly from plants. 

What is the difference between /jeroxide and ^ro^oxide of iron ? 
How must the food of plants be supplied ? 
What takes place after it enters the plant ? 
What name is given to the compounds thus formed? 
How are proximates divided? 

Which class constitutes the largest part of the plant ? 
Of what are animals composed, and how do they obtain the 
materials from which to form their growth ? 



60 THE PLANT. 

The first class of proximates in animals comprise 
the fat, and like tissues. 

The second class form the muscle, hair, gelatine 
of the bones, etc. 

In order that they may be perfectly developed, 
animals must eat both classes of proximates, and in 
the proportions required by their natures. 

They require the phosphate of lime and other in- 
organic food which exist in plants. 

Seeds are the best adapted to the uses of working 
animals, because they are rich in all kinds of food re- 
quired. 

Aside from their use in the formation of fat, 
proximates of the first class are employed in the 
lungs, as fuel to keep up animal heat, which is pro- 
duced (as in fire and decay) by the decomposition of 
these substances. 

When the food is insufficient for the purposes of 
heat, the animal's own fat is decomposed, and carried 
to the lungs as fuel. • 

The stems, roots, branches, etc., of most plants 
consist principally oi looody fibre. 

Their seeds, and sometimes their roots, contain 
considerable quantities oi starch. 



What parts of the animal belong to the first class of proximates ? 
Wliat to the second? 

What is necessary to the perfect development of animals ? 
Why are seeds valuable for working animals? 
What other important use, iu animal economy, have proximates 
of the first class ? 

Under what circumstances is animal fat decomposed f 



THE PLANT. 61 

The protei7i and the oils of most plants exist 
most largely in the seeds. 

The location of the proximates, as well as of the 
inorganic parts of the plant, show a remarkable re- 
ference to the purposes of growth, and to the wants 
of the animal world, as is noticed in the difference 
between the construction of the straw and that of 
the kernel of wheat. 

The reason why the fine flour now made is not so 
healthfully nutritious as that which contained more of 
the coarse portions, is that it is robbed of a large 
proportion of protein and phosphate of lime, while 
it contains an undue amount of starch, which is avail- 
able only to form fat, and to supply fuel to the 
lungs. 

Different plants have ashes of different composi- 
tion. Thus — one may take from the soil large quan- 
tities of potash, another of phosphoric acid, and 
another of lime. 

By understanding these differences, we shall be 
able so to regulate our rotations, that the soil 
may not be called on to supply more of one in- 
gredient than of another^ and thus it may be kept 
in balance. 



Name the parts of the plant in which the different proximates 
exist. 

State what you know about flour. 

Do we know that different plants have ashes of different com- 
''osition I 



62 THE PLANT. 

The facts contained in this chapter are the 
alphabet of agriculture, and the learner should not 
only hecome perfectly familiar with them, but should 
also clearly understand the reaso7is why they are 
true, before proceeding further. 

Ho"w are farmers to be benefited by such knowledge ? 



SECTION SECOND. 



THE SOIL, 



SECTION SECOm 



THE SOIL. 



• CHAPTER I. 

FORMATION AND CHARACTER OF THE 

SOIL. 

In the foregoing section, we have studied the cha- 
racter of plants and the laws which govern their 
growth. We learned that one necessary condition for 
growth is a fertile soil, and therefore we will ex- 
amine the nature of different soils, in order that we 
may understand the relations between them and 
plants. 

The soil is not to be reo-arded as a mvsterious 
mass of dirt, whereon crops are produced by a 
mysterious process. Well ascertained scientific 

What is a necessary condition of growth ? 



66 THE SOIL. 

knowledge has proved beyond question that all soilSj 
whether in America or Asia^ whether in Maine or 
CaHfornia, have certain fixed properties, which render 
them fertile or barren, and the science of agriculture 
is able to point out these characteristics in all cases, so 
that we can ascertain from a scientific investigation 
what would be the chances for success in cultivating 
any soil which we examine. 

The soil is a great chemical compound, and its 
chemical character is ascertained (as in the case of 
plants) by analyzing it, or taking it apart. 

We first learn that fertile soils contain both or- 
ganic and inorganic matter ; but, unlike the plant, 
they usually possess much more of the latter than of 
the former. 

In the plant, the organic matter constitutes the 
most considerable portion of the whole. In the soil, 
on the contrary, it usually exists in very small quan- 
tities, while the inorganic portions constitute nearly 
the whole bulk. 

The organic part of soils consists of the same 
materials that constitute the organic part of the 
plants, and it is in reality decayed vegetable and 
animal matter. It is not necessary that this organic 
part of the soil should form any particular proportion 

What is a fixed character of soils ? 

How is the chemical character of the soil to be ascertained? 
What do we first learn in analyzing a soil ? 
How do the proportions of organic or inorganic parts of soils 
compare with those of plants ? 

Of what does the organic part of soils consist ? 



THE SOIL. 67 

of the whole, and indeed we find it varying from one 
and a half to fifty, and sometimes, in peaty soils, to 
over seventy per cent. All fertile soils contain some 
organic matter, although it seems to make but Httle 
'difference m fertility, whether it be ten or fifty per 
cent. 

The inorganic part of soils is derived from the 
crumbling of rocks. Some rocks (such as the slates 
in Central New York) decompose, and crumble ra- 
pidly on being exposed to the weather ; while 
granite, marble, and other rocks will last for a long 
time without perceptible change. The causes of this 
crumbling are various, and are not unimportant to 
the agriculturist ; as by the same processes by which 
his soil was formed, he can increase its depth, or 
otherwise improve it. This being the case, we will 
in a few words explain some of the principal pul- 
verizing; aojents. 

1, The action of frost. When water lodges 
in the crevices of rocks, and freezes, it expands, 
and bursts the rock, on the same principle as 
causes it to break a pitcher in winter. This 
power is very great, and by its assistance, large 
cannon may be burst. Of course the action of frost 
is the same on a small scale as when applied to large 



Can the requii'ed proportion be definitely indicated ? 

From what source is the inorganic part of soils derived ? 

Do all soils decompose with equal facility ? 

How does frost affect rocks ? 

Does it affect soils in the same way ? 



68 THE SOIL. 

masses of matter, and, therefore, we find that when 
water freezes in the pores^^ of rocks or stones, it se- 
parates their particles and causes them to crumble. 
The same rule holds true with regard to stilff clay- 
soils. If they are ridged in autumn, and left with a 
rough surface exposed to the frosts of winter, they 
will become much lighter, and can afterwards be 
worked with less difficulty. 

2. The action of water. Many kinds of rock 
become so soft on being soaked with water, that they 
readily crumble. 

3. The chemical changes of the constituents of 
the rock. Many kinds of rock are affected by ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, in such a manner, that 
changes take place in their chemical character, and 
cause them to fall to pieces. The red kellis of New 
Jersey (a species of sandstone), is, when first quar- 
ried, a very hard stone, but on exposure to the in- 
fluences of the atmosphere, it becomes so soft that 
it may be easily crushed between the thumb and 
finger. 

Other actions, of a less simple kind, exert an in- 
fluence on the stubbornness of rocks, and cause them 

* The spaces between the particles. 



What is the effect of water on certain rocks ? 

How are some rocks affected by exposure to the atmosphere ? 

Give an instance of this. 



THE SOIL. 69 

to be resolved into soils.* Of course, the composi- 
tion of the soil must be similar to that of the rock 
from which it was formed ; and, consequently, if we 
know the chemical character of the rock, we can tell 
whether the soil formed from it can be brought 
under profitable cultivation. Thus feldspar, on being 
pulverized, yields potash ; talcose slate yields mag- 
nesia ; marls yield lime, etc. 

The soil formed entirely from rock, contains, of 
com'se, no organic matter. f Still it is capable of 
bearing plants of a certain class, and when these die, 
they are deposited in the soil, and thus form its 
organic portions, rendering it capable of supporting 
those plants which furnish food for animals. Thou- 
sands of years must have been occupied in preparing 
the earth for habitation by man. 

As the inorganic or mineral part of the soil is 
usually the largest, we will consider it first. 

As we have stated that this portion is formed 

* In very many instances the crevices and seams of rocks are 
permeated by roots, "which, by decaying and thus inducing the 
growth of other roots, cause these crevices to become filled with 
organic matter. This, by the absorption of moisture, may expand 
with sufficient power to burst the rock. 

f Some rocks contain sulphur, phosphorus, etc., and these may, 
perhaps, be considered as organic matter. 



What is the similarity between the composition of soils and the 
rocks from which they were formed ? 

What does feldspar rock yield? Talcose slate ? Marls? 
Does a soil formed entirely from rock contain organic matter ? 
How is it afi"ected by the growth of plants ? 



70 THE SOIL. 

from rocks, we will examine their character, with a 
view to showing the different qualities of soils. 

As a general rule, it may be stated that all rocks 
are either sandstones^ limestones^ or clays / or a mix- 
ture of two or more of these ingredients. Hence we 
find that all mineral soils are either sandy, calcareous, 
(limey), or clayey ; or consist of a mixture of these, 
in which one or another usually predominates. Thus, 
we speak of a sandy soil, a clay soil, etc. These 
distinctions (sandy, clayey, loamy, etc.) are impor- 
tant in considering the mechanical character of the 
soil, but have little reference to its fertility. 

By mechanical character, we mean those quali- 
ties which affect the ease of cultivation — excess or 
deficiency of water, ability to withstand drought, etc. 
For instance, a heavy clay soil is difficult to plow — 
retains water after rains, and bakes quite hard during 
drought ; while a light sandy soil is plowed with ease, 
often allows water to pass through immediately after 
rains, and becomes dry and powdery during drought. 
Notwithstanding those differences in their mechani- 
cal character, both soils may be very fertile, or one 
more so than the other, without reference to the clay 
and sand which they contain, and which, to our ob- 
servation, form their leading characteristics. The 



"What is the general rule concerning the composition of rocks ? 
Do these distinctions affect the fertility of soils formed from 
them? 

What do we mean by the mechanical character of the soil ? 
Is its fertility indicated by its mechanical character? 



THE SOIL. 71 

same facts exist with regard to a loam, a calcareous 
(or limey) soil, or a vegetable mould. Their me- 
chanical texture is not essentially an index to their 
fertility, nor to the manures required to enable them 
to furnish food to^lants. It is true, that each kind 
of soil appears to have some general quality of fer- 
tility or barrenness which is well known to practical 
men, yet this is not founded on the fact that the clay 
or the sand, or the vegetable matter, enter more large- 
ly into the constitution of plants than they do when 
they are not present in so great quantities, but on cer- 
tain other facts which will be hereafter explained. 

As the following names are used to denote the 
character of soils, in ordinary agricultural description, 
we will briefly explain their application : 

A Sandy soil is, of course, one in which sand 
largely predominates. ' 

Clay soil, one where clay forms a large propor- 
tion of the soil. 

Loamy soil, where sand and clay are about equally 
mixed. 

Marl contains from five to twenty per cent, of 
carbonate of lime. 

Calcareous soil more than twenty per cent. 

Peaty soils, of course, contain large quantities of 
organic matter. ■^'•" 

* These distinctions are not essential to be learned, but are often 
convenient. 

What is a sandy soil? A clay soil? A loamy soil ? AmarH 
A calcareous soil ? A peaty soil ? 



72 



THE SOIL. 



We will now take under consideration that part 
of the soil on which depends its ability to supply- 
food to the plant. This portion rarely constitutes 
more than five or ten per cent, of the entire soil, some- 
times less — and it has no reference to the sand, clay, 
and vegetable matters which they contain. ^From 
analyses of many fertile soils, and of others which are 
barren or of poorer quality, it has been ascertained 
that the presence of certain ingredients is necessary 
to fertility. This may be better explained by the as- 
sistance of the following table : — 



In one hundred pounds. 


Soil fertile 
without 
manure. 


Good 
wheat soil. 


Barren. 


Organic matter, . 


9.7 


7.0 


4.0 


Silica (sand), 


64.8 


74.3 


77.8 


Alumina (clay), . 


5.7 


5.5 


9.1 


Lime, .... 


5.9 


1.4 


.4 


Magnesia, .... 


.9 


.7 


.1 


Oxide of iron, . 


6.1 


4.7 


8.1 


Oxide of manganese, . 


.1 




.1 


Potash, .... 


.2 


1.7 


> 


Soda, 


.4 


.7 




Chlorine, .... 


.2 


.1 




Sulphuric acid, . 


.2 


.1 




Phosphoric acid, 


.4 


•li 




Carbonic acid, 


4.0 






Loss during the analysis . 


1.4 


3.6^ 


.4 




100.0 


100.0 


100.0 



How large a part of the soil may be used as food by plants ? 
What do we learn from the analyses of barren and fertile soils ? 



' THE SOIL 73 

The soil represented in the first oolamn might 
still be fertile with less organic matter, or with a 
larger proportion of clay (alumina), and less sand 
(silica). These affect its mechanical cliaracter ; but, 
if we look down the column, we notice that there are 
small quantities of lime, magnesia, and the other con- 
stituents of the ashes of plants (except ox. of 
manganese). It is not necessary that they should be 
present in the soil in the exact quantity named above, 
but not one must he entirely absent, or greatly re- 
duced in proportion. By refen-ing to the thnd 
column, we see that these ingredients arc not all 
present, and the soil is barren. Even if it were 
supplied with all but one or two, potash and soda 
for instance, it could not support a crop without the 
assistance of manures containing these alkalies. The 
reason for thisjnust be readily seen, as we have learned 
that no plant can arrive at maturity without the 
necessary supply of materials required in the forma- 
tion of the ash, and these materials can be obtained 
only from the soil ; consequentlyj when they do not 
exist there, it must be barren. 

The inorganic part of soils has two distinct 
offices to perform. The" clay and sand form a 

What can you saj of the soils represented in the table of ana- 
lyses ? 

What proportion of the fertilizing ingredients is required? 

If the soil represented in the tliird column contained all ihe in- 
gredients required excf pt potash and soda, would it be fertile ? 

What would be necessary to make it so? 

What is the reason for this? 

What are the offices performed by the inorganic part of soils ? 

4 



74 - THE SOIL. 

mass of material into which roots can penetrate, and 
thus plants are supported in then: position. These 
parts also absorb heat, air and moisture to serve the 
purposes of growth, as we shall see in a future 
chapter. The minute portions of soil, which com- 
prise the acids, alkalies, and neutrals, furnish plants 
with their ashes, and are the most necessary to 
the fertility of the soil. 

GEOLOGY. 

The relation between the inorganic part of soils 
and the rocks from which it was formed, is the 
the foundation of Agricultural Geology. Geology 
may be briefly named the science of rocks. It would 
not be proper in an elementary work to introduce much 
of this study, and we will therefore simply state that 
the same kind of rock is of the same composition all 
over the world ; consequently, if we find a soil in 
New England formed from any particular rock, and a 
soil from the same rock in Asia, their natural fertility 
will be the same in both localities. Some rocks 
consist of a mixture of different kinds of minerals ; 
and some, consisting chiefly of one ingredient, are of 
different degrees of hardness. Both of these changes 
must affect the character of the soil, but it may be 
laid down as rule that, when the rochs of two loca- 

What is geology ? 

Is the same kind of rock always of the same composition ? 

How do rocks differ ? 



THE SOIL. 75 

tions are exactly alike, the soils formed from them 
will he of the same natural fertility, and in propor- 
tion as the character of rocks changes, in the same 
proportion luill the soils differ. 

In most districts the soil is formed from the rock 
on which it lies ; but this is not always the case. 
Soils are often formed by deposits of matter brought 
by water from other localities. Thus the alluvial 
banks of rivers consist of matters brought from the 
country through which the rivers have passed. The 
river Nile, in Egypt, yearly overflows its banks, 
and deposits large quantities of mud brought from 
the uninhabited upper countries. The prairies of the 
West owe a portion of their soil to deposits by 
water. Swamps often receive the washings of ad- 
jacent hills ; and, in these cases, their soil is derived 
from a foreign source. 

We might continue to enumerate instances of the 
relations between soils and the sources whence they 
originated, thus demonstrating more fully the impor- 
tance of geology to the farmer ; but it would be 
beyond the scope of this work, and should be in- 
vestigated by scholars more advanced than those 
who are studying merely the elements of agricultural 
science. 

The mind, in its early application to any branch 



What rule may be given in relation to soils formed from the 
same or different rocks ? 

Are all soils formed from the rocks on which they lie ? 
What instances can you give of this ? 



76 ' THE SOIL. 

of study, should not be charged with intricate 
subjects. It should master well the rudiments, 
before investigatiug those matters which should 
folloio such understanding. 

By pursuing the proper course, it is easy to learn 
all that is necessary to form a good foundation for a 
thorough acquaintance with the subject. If this 
foundation is laid thoroughly, the learner will regard 
plants and soils as old acquaintances, with whose 
formation and properties he is as familiar as with 
the construction of a building or simple machine. A 
simple spear of grass will become an object of 
interest, forming itself into a perfect plant, with full 
development of roots, stem, leaves, and seeds, by 
processes with which he feels acquainted. The soil 
will cease to be mere dirt ; it will be viewed as a 
compound substance, whose composition is a matter 
of interest, and whose care is productive of intel- 
lectual pleasure. The commencement 6f study in any 
science must necessarily be wearisome to the young 
mind, but its more advanced stages amjoly repay the 
trouble of early exertions. • 

In what light will plants and soils be regarded by those who 
understand them? 



THE SOIL. 77 



CHAPTER II. 

USES OF ORGANIC MATTEK. 

It will be recollected that, in addition to its mineral 
portions, the soil contains organic matter in varied 
quantities. It may be fertile with but one and a half 
per cent, of organic matter, and some peaty soils con- 
tain more than fifty per cent, or more than one half 
of the whole. 

The precise amount necessary cannot be fixed 
at any particular sum ; perhaps five parts in a 
hundred would be as good a quantity as could be 
recommended. 

The soil obtains its organic matter in two ways. 
First, by the decay of roots and dead plants, also of 
leaves, which have been brought to it by wind, etc. 
Second, by the application of organic manures. 

When a crop of clover is raised, it obtains its 
carbon from the atmosphere ; and, if it be plowed 
under, and allowed to decay, a portion of this carbon 
is deposited in the soil. Carbon constitutes nearly 
the whole of the dry weight of the clover, aside from 
the constituents of water ; and, when we calculate 
the immense quantity of hay, and roots grown on 



What proportion of orojanic matter is required for fertility ? 

How does the soil obtain its organic matter? 

How does the growth of clover, etc., affect the soil ? 



78 THE SOIL. r 

i 

an acre of soil in a single season^ we shall find that , 
the amount of carbon thus deposited is immense. ,^ 
If the clover had been removed, and the roots only ^ 
left to decay, the amount of carbon deposited would 'j 
still have been very great. The same is true in all 
cases where the crop is removed, and the roots re- 
main to form the organic or vegetable part of the 
soil. While undergoing decomposition, a portion of 
this matter escapes in the form of gas, and the re- 
mainder chiefly assumes the form of carbon (or 
charcoal), in which form it will always remain, 
without loss, unless driven out by fire. If a bushel 
of charcoal be mixed with the soil now, it wiU be the 
same bushel of charcoal, neither more nor less, a 
thousand years hence, unless some influence is brought 
to bear on it aside from the growth of plants. It is 
true that, in the case of the decomposition of or- 
ganic matter in the soil, certain compounds are 
formed, known under the general names of humus 
and Jmmic acid, which may, in a slight degree, afiect 
the growth of plants, but their practical importance 
is of too doubtful a character to justify us in con- 
sidering them. The application of manures, con- 
taining organic matter, such as peat, muck, animal 
manure, etc., supplies the soil with carbon on the 
same principle, and the decomposing matters also 



When organic matter decaj^sin the soil, what becomes of it? 

Is charcoal taken up by plants ? 

Are humus and humic acid of great practical importance? 



THE SOIL. 79 

generate ■'■' carbonic acid gas while being decomposed. 
The agricultural value of carbon in the soil depends 
(as we have stated), not on the fact that it enters into 
the composition of plants, but on certain other 
important offices \vhich it performs, as follows : — 

1. It makes the soil more retentive of manures. 

2. It causes it to appropriate larger quantities of 
the fertilizing gases of the atmosjDhere. 

3. It gives it greater power to absorb moisture. 

4. It renders it warmer. 

1. Carbon (or charcoal) makes the soil retentive 
of manures, because it has in itself a strong power to 
absorb, and retain f fertilizing matters. There is a 
simple experiment by which this power can be 
shown, 

Ex. — Take two barrels of pure beach sand, 
and mix with the sand in one barrel a few handfuls 

m 

of charcoal dust, leaving that in the other pure. 
Pour the brown liquor of the barn-yard through the 
pure sand, and it will pass out at the bottom un- 
altered. Pour the same liquor through the barrel, 
containing the charcoal, and pure water will be ob- 
tained as a result. The reason for this is that the 

* Produce. 

f By absorbing and retaining, -we naean taking up and holding. 



On -what does the agricultural value of the carbon in the soil 
depend ? 

Why does it make the soil more retentive of manure ? 
What is the expei'iment with the barrels of sand ? 



80 THE SOIL. 

charcoal retains all of the impurities of the liquor, 
and allows only the water to pass through. Char- 
coal is often employed to purify water for drinking, 
or for maniifacturing purposes. 

A rich garden-soil contains large quantities of 
carbonaceous matter ; and, if we bury in such a soil 
a piece of tainted meat or a fishy duck, it will, in a 
short time, be deprived of its odor, because the 
charcoal in the soil will entirely absorb it. 

Carbon absorbs gases as well as the impurities of 
water ; and, if a little charcoal be sprinkled over 
manure, or any other substance, emitting offensive 
odors, the gases escaping will be taken up by the 
charcoal, and the odor will cease. 

It has also the power of absorbing mineral 
matters, which are contained in water. If a quan- 
tity of salt water be filtered through charcoal, the 
salt will be retained, and the wa-ter will pass through 
pure. 

We are now able to see^how carbon renders the 
soil retentive of manures. 

1st. Manures, which resemble the brown liquor 
of barn-yards, have their fertilizing matters taken 
out, and retained by it. 



"Will charcoal purif j water ? 

If a piece of tainted meat, or a fishy duck be buried in a rich 
garden soil, what takes place? 

What is the reason of this? 

How does charcoal overcome offensive odors? 

How can you prove that charcoal absorbs the mineral impuri- 
ties of water? 



THE SOIL. 81 

2d. The gases arising from the decomposition 
{rotting) of manure are absorbed by it. 

3d. The soluble mineral portions of manure, 
which might in some soils leach down with water, 
are arrested and retained at a point at which they 
can be made use of by the roots of plants. 

2. Charcoal in the soil causes it to appropriate 
larger quantities of the fertilizing gases of the atmos- 
phere, on account of its power, as just named, to ab- 
sorb gases. 

The atmosphere contains results, which have been 
produced by the breathing of animals and by the de- 
composition of various kinds of organic matter, which 
are exposed to atmospheric influences. These gases 
are chiefly ammonia and carbonic acid, both of which 
are largely absorbed by water, and consequently are 
contained in rain, snow, etc., which, as they enter 
the soil, give up these gases to the charcoal, and 
they there remain until required by plants. Even 
the air itself, in circulating through the soil, gives up 
fertihzing gases to the carbon, which it may contain. 

3. Charcoal gives to the soil power to absorb 
moisture, because it is itself one of the best ab- 



How does chai'coal in the soil affect the manures applied? 
"Why does charcoal in the soil cause it to appropriate the gases 
of the atmosphere ? 

What fertilizing gases exist in the atmosphere? 

How ate they carried to the soil ? 

Does the carbon retain them after they reach the soil ? 

What can you say of the air circulating through the soil? 

How does carbon give the soil power to absorb moisture ? 

A** 



82 THE SOIL. 

sorbents in nature ; and it has been proved by ac- 
curate experiment that peaty soils absorb moisture 
with greater rapidity, and part with it more slowly 
than any other kind. 

4. Carbon in the soil renders it warmer, because 
it darkens its color. Black surfaces absorb more 
heat than light ones, and a black coat, when worn 
in the sun, is warmer than one of a lighter color. 
By mixing carbon with the soil, we darken its color, 
and render it capable of absorbing a greater amount 
of heat from the sun's rays. 

It will be recollected that, when vegetable matter 
decomposes in the soil, it produces certain gases 
(carbonic acid, etc.), which either escape into the 
atmosphere, or are retained in the soil for the use of 
plants. The production of these gases is always ac- 

* 

companied by heat, which, though scarcely percep- 
tible to our senses, is perfectly so to the growing 
pdant, and is of much jDractical importance. This 
will be examined more fully in speaking of manures. 
Another im^^ortant part of the organic matter in 
the soil is that which contains nitrogen. This forms 
but a very small portion of the soil, but it is of the 
greatest importance to vegetables. As the nitrogen 
in food is of absolute necessity to the growth of 

How does it render it ■warmer ? 

Is the heat produced by the decomposition of organic matter 
perceptible to our senses? 

Is it so to the growing plant? 

What i^ another important part of the organic matter in tho 
soil? 



THE SOIL. 83 

animals, so the nitrogen in the soil is indisjjensable 
to the growth of cultivated plants. It is obtained 
by the soil in the form of ammonia (or nitric acid), 
from the atmosphere, or by the application of animal 
matter. In some cases, manures called nitrates^'' 
are used ; and, in this manner, nitrogen is given to 
the soil. 

We have now learned that the organic matter in 
the soil performs the following offices : — 

Organic matter thoroughly decomposed is carbon, 
and has the various effects ascribed to this sub- 
stance on p. 79. 

Organic matter in process of decay produces car- 
bonic acid, and sometimes ammonia in the soil ; also 
its decay causes heat. 

Organic matter containing nitrogenj such as 
animal substances, etc., furnish ammonia, and other 
nitrogenous substances to the roots of plants. 

* Nitrates are compounds of nitric acid (which consists of ni- 
trogen and oxygen), and alkaline substances. Thus nitrate of 
potash (saltpetre), is composed of nitric acid and potash: nitrate 
>f soda (cubical nitre), of nitric acid and soda. 

How is it obtained by the soil? 

What otfices does the organic matter in the soil perform ? 



84 THE SOIL. 



CHAPTER III. 

USES OF INOSGANIC MATTER. 

The offices performed by the inorganic constituents 
of the soil are many and important. 

These, as well as the different conditions in which 
the bodies exist, are necessary to be thoroughly 
studied. 

Those parts which constitute the larger propor- 
tion of the soil, namely the clay, sand, and limy 
portions, are useful for purposes which have been 
named in the first part of this section, while the clay 
has an additional effect in the absorption of ammonia. 

For this purpose, it is as effectual as charcoal, * 
the gases escaping from manures, as well as those 
existing in the atmosphere, and in rain-water, being 
.irrested by clay as well as charcoal.**' 

The more minute ingredients of the soil — those 
which enter into the construction of plants — exist in 
conditions which are more or less favorable or in- 

* It is d^^e to our country, as well as to Prof. Mapes and others, 
■who long ago explained this absorptive power of clay and carbon, 
to say that the subject was perfe<-tly understood and practically 
applied in America a number of years before Prof. Way published 
the discovery in England as original, 

' " ' " ' • I. ■■■■■■ I -■■.-,.■■■ , . , ■ - . . . „ , , ^ 

What effect has clay besides the one already named? 
How does it compare with charcoal for this purpose ? 



THE SOIL. . 85 

jurious to vegetable growth. The principal condi- 
tion necessary to fertility is capacity to be dissolved, 
it being (so far as we have been able to ascertain) a 
fixed rule, as was stated in the first section, that. 
no mineral substance can enter into the roots of a 
plant except it be dissolved in water. 

The alkalies potash, soda, lime, and magnesia, 
are in nearly all of their combinations in the soil 
sufiiciently soluble for the purposes of growth. 

The acids are, as will be recollected, sulphuric 
and phosphoric. These exist in the soil in combi- 
nation with the alkalies, as sulphates and phosphates, 
which are more or less soluble under natural circum- 
stances. Phosphoric acid in combination with lime 
as phosphate of lime is but slightly soluble ; but, 
when it exists in the compound known as super- 
phosphate of lime, it is much more soluble, and con- 
sequently enters into the composition of plants with 
much greater facility. This matter will be more 
fully explained in the section on manures. 

The neutrals J silica, chlorine, oxide of iron, and 
oxide of manganese, deserve a careful examination. 
Silica exists in the soil usually in the form of sand, 
in which it is, as is well known, perfectly insoluble ; 
and, before it can be used by plants, which often re- 

What particular condition of inorganic matter is req^uisite for . 
.fertility? 

What is the fixed rule with regard to this ? 
What is the condition of the alkalies in most of their combina 
'">Ds? Of the acids? 

What is said of phosphate of lime f 



86 THE SOIL. 

quire it in large quantities, it must be made soluble, 
wliicli is done by combining it with an alkali. 

For instance, if the silica in the soil is insoluble, 
we must make an apphcation of an alkali, such as 
potash, which will unite with the silica, and form 
the silicate of potash, which is in the exact condition 
to be dissolved and carried into the roots of plants. 

Chlorine in the soil is ^^i^o^a^W always in an 
available condition. 

Oxide of iron exists, as has been previously 
stated, usually in the' form of the j:>eroxide (or red 
oxide). Sometimes, however, it exists in the form 
■of the protoxide (or black oxide), which is poisonous 
to plants, and renders the soil unfertile. By loosen- 
ing the soil in such a manner as to admit air and water, 
this compound takes up more oxygen, which renders 
it a peroxide, and makes it available for plants. The 
oxide of manganese is probably of little consequence. 

The usefulness of all of these matters in the soil 
depends on their exposure ; if they are in the interior 
of particles, they cannot be made use of; while, if 
the particles are so pulverized that their constituents 
are exposed, they become available, because water 
can immediately attack to dissolve, and carry them 
into roots. 

How may silica be rendered soluble ? ^ 
What is the condition of chlorine in the soil? "» 

Do peroxide and pi^otoxide of iron affect plants in the same way? 
How would you treat a soil containing protoxide of iron? 
On what does the usefulness of all these matters in the soil 
depend ? 



THE SOIL. 87 

This is one of the great offices of plowing and 
hoeing ; the himps of soil being thereby more broken 
up and exposed to the action of atmospheric in- 
fluences, which are often necessary to produce a fer- 
tile condition of soil, while the trituration of particles 
reduces them in size. 

SUBSOIL. 

The subsoil is usually of a different character from 
the surface soil, but this difference is more often the 
result of circumstances than of formation. The 
surface soil from having been long cultivated has 
been more opened to the influences of the air than is 
the case with the subsoil, which has never been dis- 
turbed so as to allow the same action. Again the 
growth of plants has supplied the surface soil with 
roots, which by decaying have given it organic mat- 
ter, thus darkening its color, rendering it warmer, 
and giving greater abihty to absorb heat and 
moisture, and to retain manures. All of these effects 
render the surface soil of a more fertile character 
than it was before vegetable growth commenced ; 
and, where frequent cultivation and manures have 
been applied, a still greater benefit has resulted. In 
most instances the subsoil may by the same means 



What is one of the chief offices of plowing and hoeing? 
Is the subsoil usually diflferent from the surface soil ? 
What circumstances have occasioned the diflference ? 
In -what way ? 



88 THE SOIL. 

be gradually improved in condition until it equals 
the surface soil in fertility. The means of producing 
this result, also farther accounts of its advantages, 
will be given under the head of Cultivation (Sect. IV.) 



IMPKOVEMENT. 

From what has now been said of the character of 
the soil, it must be evident that, as we know the 
causes of fertility and barrenness, we may by the pro- 
per means improve the character of all soils which 
are not now in the highest state of fertility. 

Chemical analysis will tell us the composition 
of a soil, and an examination, such as any farmer 
may make, will inform us of its deficiencies in mecha" 
nical character, and we may at once resort to the 
proper means to secure fertility. In some instances 
the soil may contain every thing that is required, 
but not in the necessary condition. For instance, in 
some' parts of Massachusetts, there are nearly barren 
soils which show by analysis precisely the same 
chemical composition as the soil of the Miami valley 
of Ohio, one of the most fertile in the world. The 
cause of this great difference in their agricultural 
capabilities, is that the Miami soil has its particles 

May the subsoil be made to resemble the surface soil? 
May all soils be brought to the highest state of fertility? 
On what exatnination must improvement be based? 
"What is the difference between the soil of some p iits of 
Massachusetts and that of the Miami valley? 



THE SOIL. 89 

finely pulverized ; while in the Massachusetts soil the 
ingredients are combined within particles (such as 
pebbles, etc.), where they are out of the reach of roots. 

In other cases, we find two soils, which are equal- 
ly well pulverized, and which appear to be of the 
same character, having very different power to sup- 
port crops. Chemical analysis will show in these 
instances a diff'erence of composition. 

All of these differences may be overcome by the 
use of the proper means. Sometimes it could be 
done at an expense which would be justified by the 
result ; and, at others, it might require too large an 
outlay to be profitable. It becomes a question of 
economy, not of ability, and science is able to estimate 
the cost. 

Soil cannot be cultivated understandingly until 
it has been subjected to such an examination as 
will tell us exactly what is necessary to render it 
fertile. Even after fertility is perfectly restored 
it requires thought and care to maintain it. The 
ingredients of the soil must be returned in the form 
of manures as largely as they are removed by the 
crop, or the supply will eventually become too small 
for the purposes of vegetation. 



"Why do soils of the same degree of fineness sometimes differ 
in fertility? 

Cau soils always be rendered fei'tile with profit? 

Ciin we determine the cost before commencing the work? 

What must be done before a soil can be cultivated under- 
standingly? 

What^must be done to keep up the quality of the soil? 



SECTION THIRD. 



MANURES. 



SECTIO^Jf THIRD. 



MANURES 



• • • 



CHAPTER I. 



CHARACTER AND VARIETIES OF MA- 
NURES . 

To understand the science of 7nanu7^es is tho' laosi 
important branch of practical farming. No baker 
would be called a good practical baker who kept his 
flour exposed to the sun and rain. No shoemaker 
would be called a good practical shoemaker, who used 
morocco for the soles of his shoes, and heavy leather 
for the uppers. No carpenter would be called a good 
practical carpenter, who tried to build a house without 
nails, or other fastenings. So with the farmer. He 
cannot be called a good practical farmer if he keeps 
the materials, from which he is to make plants, in 
such a condition, that they will have their value 



94 MANURES. 

destroyed, uses tliem in the wrong places, or tries to 
put them together without having every thing pre- 
sent that is necessary. Before he can avoid failures 
with certainty, he must know what manures are com- 
posed of, how they are to be preserved, where they are 
needed, and what kinds are required. True, he may 
from observation and experience, guess at results, but 
he cannot know that he is right until he has learned 
the facts above named. In this section of our work, 
we mean to convey some of the information necessary 
to this branch of practical farming. 

We shall adopt a classification of the subject 
somewhat different from that found in most works 
on manures, but the facts are the same. The ac- 
tion of manures is either mechanical or chemical, 
or a combination of both. For instance : some 
kinds of manure improve the mechanical character 
of the soil, such as those which loosen stiff clay soils, 
or others which render light sandy soils compact — • 
these are called mechanical manures. Some again 
furnish food for plants — these are called chemical 
manures. 

Many mechanical manures produce their effects 
by means of chemical action. Thus potash combines 
chemically with sand in the soil. In so doing, it 

What must a farmer know in order to avoid foilures? 

Can this be leai-ned entirely from observation ? 

What kind of action have manures ? 

Give examples of each of these. 

May mechanical effects be produced by chemical action ? 

How does potash afifect the soil ? 



MANURES. 95 

roughens the surfaces of the particles of sand, and 
renders the soil less liable to be compacted by rains. 
In this manner, it acts as a meclianical manure. 
The compound of sand and potash,* as well as ~the 
potash alone, may enter into the composition of 
plants, and hence it is a chemical manure. In other 
words, potash belongs to both classes described above. 

It is important that this distinction should be 
well understood by the learner, as the words " mechani- 
caP' and " chemical " in connection with manures will 
be made use of throughout the following pages. 

There is another class of manures which we shall 
call absorbents. These comprise those substances 
which have the power of taking up fertilizing matters, 
and retaining them for the use of plants. For 
instance, charcoal is an absorbent. As was stated 
in the section on soils, this substance is a retainer 
of all fertilizing gases and many minerals. Other 
matters made use of in agriculture have the same 
effect. These absorbents will be spoken of more 
fully in their proper places. 

TABLE. 

Mechanical Manures are those which improve the 

mechanical condition of soils. 

Chemical " are those which serve as food 

for plants. 

* Silicate of potash. 

"What ai'e absorbents ? 

What kind of manure is charcoal f 



96 MANURES. 

Absorbents are those substances which absorb and 
retain fertiUzing matters. 

Manures may be divided into three classes, viz. : 
orgonic, inorganic^ and atmospheric. 

Organic manures comprise all animal and vege- , 
table matters which are used to fertilize the soilj 
such as dung, muck, etc. 

Inorganic manures are those which are of a 
purely mineral character, such as lime, ashes, etc. 

Atmospheric manures consist of those organic 
manures which are in the form of gases in the atmos- 
phere, and which are absorbed by rains and carried 
to the soil. These are of immense importance. The 
ammonia and carbonic acid in the air are atmos- 
pheric manures. 



-♦-•-♦- 



CHAPTER 11. 

excrements of animals. 

The first organic manure wliich we shall examine, is 
animal excrement. 

This is composed of those matters which have 
been eaten by the animal as food, and have been 
thrown off as solid or liquid manure. In order that 

Into what classes may manures be divided? 
What are organic manures ? 
Inorganic? Atmospheric f 



MANURES. 97 

we may know of what they consist, we must refer to 
the composition of food and examine the process of 
digestion. 

The food of animals, we have seen to consist of 
both organic and inorganic matter. The organic 
part may be divided into two classes, i. e., that por- 
tion which contains nitrogen — such as gluten, albu- 
men, etc., and that which does not contain nitrogen 
— such as starch, sugar, oil, etc. 

The inorganic part of food may also be divided into 
soluble matter and insoluble matter. 

DIGESTION AND ITS PRODUCTS. 

Let us now suppose that we have a full-grown ox, 
which is not increasing in any of his parts, but only 
consumes food to keep up his respiration, and to sup- 
* ply the natural wastes of his body. To this ox we 
will feed a ton of hay which contains organic matter, 
with and without nitrogen, and soluble and insoluble 
inorganic substances. Now let us try to follow it 
through its changes in the animal, and observe its 
destination. Liebig compares the consumption of 
food by animals to the imperfect burning of wood in 
a stove, where a portion of the fuel is resolved into 
gases and ashes (that is, it is completely burned), and 

Of wliat is animal exci'ement composed ? 
Explain the composition of the food of animals. 
What does hay contain? 

To what does Liebig compare the consumption of food by ani- 
mals, and why ? 



98 MANUKES. 

another portion, wliich is not thoroiigWy burned, 
passes oif as soot. In tlie animal action in question, 
the food undergoes changes which are similar to this 
burning of wood. A part of the food is digested and 
taken up by the blood, while another portion remains 
undigested, and passes the bowels as solid dung — 
corresponding to soot. This part of the dung then, 
we see is merely so much of the food as passes through 
the system without being materially changed. Its 
nature is easily understood. It contains organic and 
inorganic matter in nearly the same condition as they 
existed in the hay. They have been rendered finer 
and softer, but their chemical character is not ma- 
terially altered. The dung also contains small 
quantities of nitrogenous matter, which leaked out, 
as it were, from the stomach *and intestines. The 
digested food, however, undergoes further changes 
which affect its character, and it escapes from the 
body in three ways — L e., through the lungs, through 
the bladder, and through the bowels. It wiU be re- 
collected from the first section of this book, p. 22, 
that the carbon in the blood of animals, unites with 
the oxygen of the air drawn into the lungs, and is 
thrown off in the breath as carbonic acid. The hy- 
drogen and oxygen unite to form a part of the water 
which constitutes the moisture of the breath. 



Of what does that part of dung consist which resembles soot? 
"What else does the dung contain ? ^ 

In what manner does the digested part of food escape from the 
body ? 



MANURES. 99 

That portion of tlie organic part of the hay which 
has been taken up by the blood of the ox, and which 
does not contain nitrogen (corresponding to the Jirst 
class of proximates, as described in Sect. I), is emitted 
through the lungs. It consists, as will be recollect- 
ed, of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, and these as- 
sume, in respiration, the form of carbonic acid and 
water. 

The organic matter of the digested hay, in the 
blood, which contains nitrogen (corresponding to the 
second class of proximates, described in Sect. I), goes 
to the bladder, where it assumes the form of urea — 
a constituent of urine or liquid manure. 

We have now disposed of the imperfectly di- 
gested food (dung), and of the organic matter which 
was taken up by the blood. All that remains to be 
examined is the inorganic or mineral matter in the 
blood, which would have become ashes, if the hay 
had been burned. The soluble part of this inorganic 
matter passes into the bladder, and forms the inor- 
ganic part of urine. The insoluble part passes the 
bowels, in connection with the dung. 

If any of the food taken up by the blood is not 
returned as above stated, it goes to form fat, muscle, 
hair, bones, or some other part of the animal, and as 

Explain the escape of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen. 
What becomes of the nitrogenous parts? 
How is the soluble ash of the digested food parted with ? 
The insoluble ? 

If any portions of the food are not returned in the dung, how 
are they disposed of? 



100 MANUKES. 

he is not growing (not increasing in weight) an 
equivalent amount of the body of the animal goes to 
the manure to take the place of the part retained.* 
We now have our subject in a form to be readily 
understood. We learn that when food is given to 
animals it is not 'put out of existe^ice, but is merely 
changed inform ; and that in the impurities of the 
breath, we have a large portion of those parts 
of the food which plants obtain from air and from 
water ; while the solid and liquid excrements contain 
all that was taken by the plants from the soil and 
manures. 

The Solid Dung contains the undigested parts of the 

food, the insoluble parts of 
the ash, and the nitrogenous 
matters which have escap- 
ed from the digestive or- 
gans. 
" Liquid Manure " the nitrogenous or second 

class of proximates of the 
digested food, and the sohc- 
hle parts of the ash. 

* This account of digestion is not, perhaps, strictly accurate in 
a physiological point of view, but it is sufficiently so to give an 
elementary understanding of the character of excrements as 
manures. 



How is their place supplied ? 

Is food put out of existence when it is fed to animals ? 
"What does the solid dung contain? Liquid manure? The 
breath ? 



MANURES. 101 

The Breath contains the first class of proximates, 

those which contain carbon, 
hydrogen and oxygen, but no 
nitrogen^' 



-•♦-♦- 



. CHAPTER HI. 

WASTE OF MANURE. 

The loss of manure is a subject which demands most 
serious attention. Until within a few years, little 
was known about the true character of manures, and 
consequently, of the importance of protecting them 
against loss. 

The first causes of waste are evaporation and 
leaching. 

evaporation. 

EvajDoration is the changing of a solid or liquid 
body to a vapory form. Thus common smelling salts, 
a solid, if left exposed, passes into the atmosphere in 

* The excrements of animals contain more or less of sulphur, 
and sometimes small quantities of phosphorus. 

What are the first causes of loss of manure? 
What is evaporation ? 



102 MANURES. 

the form of a gas or vapor. Water^ a Kquid, eva- 
porates, and becomes a vapor in the atmosphere. 
This is the case with very many substances, and in or- 
ganic nature, both sohd and liquid, they are liable 
to assume a gaseous form, and become mixed with 
the atmosphere. They are not destroyed, but are 
merely changed in form. 

As an instance of this action, suppose an animal 
to die and to decay on the surface of the earth. 
After a time, the flesh will entirely disappear, but is 
not lost. It no longer exists as the flesh of an ani- 
mal, but its carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, 
still exist in the air. They have been liberated from 
the attractions which held them together, and have 
passed away ; but (as we already know from what 
has been said in a former section) they are ready to 
be again taken up by plants, and pressed into the ser- 
vice of life. 

The evaporation of liquids may take place without 
the aid of any thing but heat ; still, in the case of 
solids, it is often assisted by decay and combustion, 
which break up the bonds that hold the constituents 
of bodies together, and thus enable them to return 
to the atmosphere, from which they were originally 
derived. 

It must be recollected that every thing, which has 



Name a solid body which evaporates. 

What takes place when a dead animal is exposed to the atmos- 
phere for a sufficient time ? 

What often assist the evaporation of solids ? 



MANURES. 103 

an odor (or can be smelled), is evaporating. The 
odor is caused by parts of the body floating in the 
air, and acting on the nerves of the nose. This is 
an invariable rule ; and, when we perceive an odor, 
we may be sure that parts of the material, from which 
it emanates, are escaping. If we perceive the odor 
of an apple, it is because i)arts of the volatile oils of 
the apple enter the nose. The same is true when we 
smell hartshorn, cologne, etc. 

Manures made by animals have an offensive odor, 
simply because volatile parts of the manure escape 
into the air, and are therefore made perceptible. All 
organic parts in turn become volatile, assuming a 
gaseous form as they decompose. 

We do not see the gases rising, but there are 
many ways by which we can detect them. If we 
wave a feather over a manure heap, from which 
ammonia is escaping, the feather having been recent- 
ly dipped in manure, white fumes will appear around 
the feather, being the muriate of ammonia formed by 
the union of the escaping gas with the muriatic acid. 
Not only ammonia, but also carbonic acid, and other 
gases which are useful to vegetation escape, and are 
given to the winds. Indeed it may be stated in few 
words that all of the organic part of plants (all that 
was obtained from the air, water, and ammonia), 



What is the cause of odor ? 

Whea we perceive an odor, what is taking place? 

Why do manures give off offensive odors? 

How may we detect ammonia escaping from manure ? 



104 MANURES. 

constituting more than nine tenths of their dry- 
weight, may be evaporated by the assistance of decay 
or combustion. The organic part of manures may 
be lost in the same manner ; and, if the process of 
decomposition be continued long enough, nothing 
but a mass of mineral matter will remain, except 
perhaps a small quantity of carbon which has not 
been resolved into carbonic acid. 

The proportion of solid manure lost by evapora- 
tion (made by the assistance of decay), is a very 
large part of the whole. Manure cannot be kept a 
single day in its natural state without losing some- 
thing. It commences to give out an offensive odor 
immediately, and this odor is occasioned, as was 
before stated, by the loss of some of its fertilizing 
parts. 

Animal manure contains, as will be seen bv re- 
ference to p. 100, all of the substances contained 
in plants, though not always in the correct re- 
lative proportions to each other. When decom- 
position commences, the carbon unites with the 
oxygen of the air, and passes off as carbonic acid ; 
the hydrogen and oxygen combine to form w^ater 
(which evaporates), and the nitrogen is mostly re- 
solved into ammonia J ivhich escapes into the atmos- 
phere. 



What remains after manure has been long exposed to decom- 
pcsition ? 

What gaseous compounds are formed by the decomposition of 
manures ? 



MANURES. 105 

If manure is thrown into heaps, it often ferments 
so rapidly as to produce sufficient heat to set 
fire to some parts of the manure, and cause it to be 
thrown off with greater rapidity. This may be ob- 
served in nearly all heaps of animal excrement. When 
they have lain for some time in mild weather, gray 
streaks of ashes are often to be seen in the centre of 
the pile. The organic part of the manure having 
been burned away, nothing but the ash remains, — 
this is called fire-fanging. 

Manures kept in cellars without being mixed 
with refuse matter are subject to the same losses. 

When kept in the yard, they are still liable to be 
lost by evaporation. They are here often saturated 
with water, and this water in its evaporation carries 
away the ammonia, and carbonic acid which it has 
obtained from the rotting mass. The evaporation of 
the water is rapidly carried on, on account of the 
great extent of surface. The whole mass is spongy, 
and soaks the liquids up from below (through hollow 
straws, etc.), to be evaporated at the surface on 
the same principle as causes the wick of a lamp 
to draw up the oil to supply fuel for the flame. 

Liquid Manure containing large quantities of 
nitrogen, and forming much ammonia, is also liable 
to lose all of its organic part from evaporation (and 



Describe fire-fanging. 

"What takes place when animal manure is exposed in an open 
barn-yard ? 

What does liquid manure lose by evaporation ? 



106 MANURES. 

fermeutation), so that it is rendered as much less 
valuable as is the soUd dung/-'-' 

From these remarks, it may be justly inferred that a 
very large portion of the value of sohd and liquid 
manure as ordinarily kept is lost by evaporation in a 
sufficient length of time, depending on circumstances, 
whether it be three months or several years. The 
wasting commences as soon as the manure iSsdropj)ed, 
and continues, except in very cold weather, until 
the destruction is complete. Hence we see that true 
economy requires that the manures of the stable, 
stye, and poultry- ho use, should be protected from 
evaporation (as will be hereafter described), as soon 
as possible after they are made. 

LEACHING. 

The subject of leaching is as important in con- 
sidering the inorganic parts of manures as evapora- 
tion is to the organic, while leaching also affects the 
organic gases, they being absorbed by water in a great 
degree. 

A good illustration of leaching is found in the 
manufacture of potash. When water is poured 

* It should be recollected that every bent straw may act as a 
Byphon, and occasion much loss of liquid manure. 



When does the waste of exposed manure commence? 
What does economy of manure require ? 
What is the effect of leaching? 
Give an illustration of leaching. 



MANURES. 107 

over wood-ashes, it dissolves their potasli which it car- 
ries through in solution, making ley. If ley is boiled 
to dryness, it leaves the potash in a solid form, proving 
that this substance had been dissolved by the water 
and removed from the insoluble parts of the ashes. 

In the same way water in passing through ma- 
nures takes up the soluble portions of the ash as fast 
as liberated by decomposition, and carries them into 
the soil below ; or, if the water runs off from the 
surface, they accompany it. In either case they are 
lost to the manure. There is but a small quantity 
of ash exposed for leaching in recent manures ; but, 
as the decomposition of the organic part proceeds^ it 
continues to develope it more find more (in the same 
manner as burning would do, only slower), thus pre- 
paring fresh supplies to be carried off with each 
shower. In this way, while manures are largely in- 
jured by evaporation, the soluble inorganic parts are 
removed by water until but a small remnant of its 
original fertilizing properties remains. 

It is a singular fact concerning leaching, that 
water is able to carry no part of the organic consti- 
tuents of vegetables more than about thirty-four 
inches below the surface in a fertile soil. They 
would probably be carried to an unlimited distance 



How does water affect decomposing manures ? 

Does continued decomposition continue to prepare material to 
be leached away ? 

How far from the surface of the soil may organic co^istitueuts 
be carried by water? 



108 MANURES. 

in pure sand, as it contains nothing which is capable 
of arresting them ; but, in most soils, the clay and 
carbon which they contain retain all of the ammonia ; 
also nearly all of the matters w^hich go to form the in- 
organic constituents of plants within about the above 
named distance from the surface of the soil. If such 
were not the case, the fertihty of the earth must soon 
be destroyed, as all of those elements which the soil 
must supply to growing plants would be carried down 
out of the reach of roots, and leave the world a 
barren waste, its siirftice having lost its elements of 
fertility, while the downward filtration of these 
would render the water of wells unfit for our use. 
Now, however, thev are all retained near the surface 
of the soil, and the water issues from springs com- 
paratively pure. 

Evaporation removes from manure — 

Carbon, in the form of carbonic acid. 

Hydrogen and oxygen, in the form of 
water. 

Nitroo-en, in the form of ammonia. 
Leaching removes from manure — 

The soluble and most valuable parts of 
'the ash in solution in water, besides 

carrying away some of the named 

above forms of organic matter. 



What arrests tl\eir farther progress ? 

What would be the effect of allowing these matters to filter 
downwards ? 

What does evaporation remove from manure \ Leaching ? 



MANURES. 109 



CHAPTER IV. 

AB SORBEN TS. 

Before considering flirther the subject of animal 
excrement, it is necessary to examine a class of 
manures known as absorbents. These comprise all 
matters which have the power of absorbing, or soak- 
ing up, as it wtre, the gases which arise from the 
eva[)oration of solid and liquid manures^ and retain- 
ing them until required hy plants. 

The most important of these is undoubtedly car- 
bon or charcoal. 



CHARCOAL. 

Charcoal, in an agricultural sense, means all 
forms of carbon, whether as jDcat, muck, charcoal 
dust from the spark-catchers of locomotives, charcoal 
hearths, river and swamp deposits, leaf mould, de- 
composed spent tanbark or sawdust, etc. In short, 
if any vegetable matter is decomposed with the par- 
tial exclusion of air (so that there shall not be oxygen 
enough suppHed to unite with all of the carbon), a 

What substances are called absorbents? 

What is the most important of these? 

What substances aie called charcoal in agriculture? 

How is vegetable niatler rendered useful as charcoal ? 



110 MANUKES. 

V portion of its carbon remains in the exact condition 
to serve the purposes of charcoal. 

The offices performed in the soil by carbonaceous 
matter were fully explained in a former section (p. 79, 
Sect. 2), and we will now examine merely its action 
with regard to manures. When properly applied to 
manures, in compost, it has the following effects : 

1. It absorbs and retains the fertilizing gases 
evajDorating from decomposing matters. 

2. It acts as a divisor, thereby reducing the 
strength (or intensity) of powerful manures — thus 
rendering them less likely to injure the roots of 
plants ; and also increases their bulk, so as to ])rQ- 
YQ^t fire fanging in composts. 

3. It in part prevents the leaching out of the 
soluble parts of the ash. 

4. It keeps the compost moist. 

The first-named office of charcoal, i. e., absorbing 
and retaining gases, is one of the utmost importance. 
It is this quality that gives to it so high a position 
in the opinion of all who have used it. As was 
stated in the section on soils, carbonaceous matter 
seems to be capable of absorbing every thing which 
may be of use to vegetation. It is a grand puri- 
fier, and while it prevents offensive odors from es- 
caping, it is at the same time storing its pores with 
food for the nourishment of plants. 

What is the first-named effect of charcoal? The second? 
Third ? Fourth ? 

Explain the first action. 



MANURES. Ill 

2d. In its capacity as a divisor for manures, char- 
coal should be considered as excellent in all cases, 
especially to use with strongly concentrated (or heat- 
ing) animal manures. These, when applied in their 
natural state to the soil, are very apt to injure young 
roots by the violence of their action. When mixed 
with a divisor, such manures are diluted, made less 
active, and consequently less injurious. In composts, 
manures are liable, as has been before stated, to be- 
come burned by the resultant heat of decomposition ; 
this is called fire fangincj, and is prevented by the 
liberal use of divisors, because, by increasing the 
bulk, the heat being diffused through a larger mass, 
becomes less intense. The same principle is exhib- 
ited in the fact that it takes more fire to boil a 
cauldron of water than a tea-kettle full. 

3d. Charcoal has much power to arrest the pas- 
sage of mineral matters in solution ; so much so, that 
compost heaps, well supplied with muck, are less af- 
fected by rains than those not so supplied. All 
composts, however, should be kept under cover. 

4th. Charcoal keeps the compost moist from the 
ease with which it absorbs water, and its ability to 
withstand drought. 

With these advantages before us, we must see 
the importance of an understanding of the modes for 



Explain its action as a divisor. 

How does charcoal protect composts against injurious action of 
rains ? 

How does it keep them moist ? 



112 MANURES. 

obtaining charcoal. Many farmers are so situated 
that they can obtain sufficient quantities of charcoal 
dust. Others have not equal facilities. Nearly all, 
however, can obtain muck, and to this we will now 
turn our attention. 



MUCK, AND THE LIME AND SALT MIXTURE. 

By rnuch, we mean the vegetable deposits of 
swamps and rivers. It consists of decayed organic 
substances, mixed with more or less earth. Its prin- 
cipal constituent is carbon, in different degrees of 
development, wliich has remained after the decom- 
position of vegetable matter. Muck varies largely 
in its quality, according to the amount of carbon 
which it contains, and the perfection of its decompo- 
sition. The best muck is usually found in compara- 
tively dry locations, where the water which once 
caused the deposit hsis been removed. Muck which 
has been long in this condition, is usually better de- 
composed than that which is saturated with water. 
The muck from swamps, however, may soon be 
brought to the best condition. It should be thrown 
out, if possible, at least one year before it is required 
for use (a less time may suffice, except in very cold 



What source of carbon is within the reach of most farmers? 
What do we mean by muck ? 
Of what does it consist? 
How does it differ in quality ? 



MANURES. 113 

climates) and left, in small heaps or ridges, to the 
action of the weather, which will assist in pulverizing 
it, while, from having its water removed, its decom- 
position goes on more rapidly. 

After the muck has remained in this condition 
a sufficient length of time, it may be removed to the 
barn-yard and composted with the lime and salt mix- 
ture (described on page 115) in the proportion of one 
cord of muck to four bushels of the mixture. This 
compost ought to be made under cover, lest the rain 
leach out the constituents of the mixture, and thus 
occasion loss ; at the end of a month or more, the 
muck in the compost will have been reduced to a line 
pulverulent mass, nearly equal to charcoal dust for 
application to animal excrement. When in this 
condition it is called prepared muck, by which name 
it will be designated in the following pages. 

Muck should not be used immediately after being 
taken from the swamp, as it is then almost always 
sour, and is liable to produce sorrel. Its sourness is 
due to acids which it contains, and these must be 
rectified by the application of an alkali, or by long 
exposure to the weather, before the muck is suitable 
for use. 



What is the first step in preparing muck for decomposition ? 

"With what proportion of the hrae and salt mixture should it 
be composted ? 

Why should tliis compost be made under cover? 

What is this called after decomposition ? 

Why should we not use muck immediately after taking it from 
the swamp ? 



114 MANURES. 



LIME AND SALT MIXTURE. 

The lime and salt mixture, used in the decom- 
position of muck, is made in the following manner : 

Eecipe.— Take three bushels of shell lime, hot 
from the kiln, or as fresh as possible, and slake it 
with water in which one bushel of salt has been dis- 
solved. 

Care must be taken to use only so much water as 
is necessary to dissolve the salt, as it is difficult to 
induce the lime to absorb a larger quantity. 

In dissolving the salt, it is well to hang it in a 
basket in the upper part of the w^ater, as the salt 
water will immediately settle towards the bottom 
(being heavier), and allow the freshest water to be 
nearest to the salt. In this way, the salt may be all 
dissolved, and thus make the brine used to slake the 
lime. It may be necessary to apply the brine at in- 
tervals of a day or two, and to stir the mass often, 
as the amount of water is too great to be readily 
absorbed. 

This mixture should be made under cover, as, if 
exposed, it would obtain moisture from rain or dew, 
which would prevent the use of all the brine. 

What proportions of lime and salt are required for the decom- 
posing mixture ? 

Explain the process of making it. 
Why should it be made under cover ? 



MANURES. 



115 



Another objection to its exposure to the weather is 
its great liability to be washed away by rains. It 
should be at least ten days old before being used, 
and would probably be improved by an age of three 
or four months, as the chemical changes it undergoes 
will require some time to be completed. 

The character of this mixture may be best de- 
scribed by the following diagram : — 

We have originally — 



• -\ 



Lime 



. Chloride of lime. 



Salt 
consisting of 

Chlorine ") Chloride 
and r of 
Sodium. ) Sodium. 
— Carbonic acid 

and 
— Oxygen in the air. 

Carbonate of Soda. 



The lime unites with the chlorine of the salt and 
forms chloride of lime. 

The sodium, after being freed from the chlorine, 
unites with the oxygen of the air and forms soda, 

* There is, undoubtedly, some of this lime which does not unite 
with the chlorine ; this, however, is still as valuable as any lime. 



Explain the character of this mixture as represented in the 
diagram, (Black board.) 



116 MANURES. 

wliicli, combining with the carbonic acid of the at- 
mosphere, forms carbonate of soda. 

Chloride of lime and carbonate of soda are better 
agents in the decomposition of muck than pure salt 
and lime ; and, as these compounds are the result 
of the mixture, much benefit ensues from the opera- 
tion. 

When shell lime cannot be obtained, Thomaston, 
or any other very pure lime, will answer, though care 
must be taken that it do not contain much magnesia. 



LIME. 

Muck may be decomposed by the aid of other ma- 
terials. jLme is very efficient, though not as much 
so as when combined with salt. The action of lime, 
when ap|)lied to the muck, depends very much on its 
condition.' Air-slaked lime (carbonate of lime), 
and hydrate of lime, slaked with water, have but a 
limited effect compared with lime freshly burned 
and applied in a caustic (or pure) form. When so 
used, however, the compost should not be exposed to 
rains, as this would have a tendency to make inortar 
which would harden it. 
■' — ~ — " — " — *" " — ' — -» ■ 

What effect has lime on muck ? 
On what does the energy of tliis effect depend ? 
Why should a compost of muck and lime be protected from 
rain? 



MANURES. 117 



POTASH. 

Potash is a very active agent in decomposing 
vegetable matter, and may be used with great ad- 
vantage, especially where an analysis of the soil which 
is to be manured shows a deficiency of potash. 

Unleached wood ashes are generally the best 
source from which to obtain this, and from five to 
twenty-five bushels of these mixed with one cord of 
muck will produce the desired result.* 

The sparlings (or refuse) of potash warehouses 
may often be purchased at sufficiently low rates to be 
used for this purpose, and answer an excellent end. 
They may be applied at the rate of from twenty to 
one hundred pounds to each cord of muck. 

By any of the foregoing methods, muck may be 
prepared for use in composting. 

* Leached ashes will not supply the place of these, as the 
leaching has deprived them of their potash. 

Is potash valuable for this use? 
From wliat sources may potash be obtained ? 
In what proportion should ashes be applied to muck? Spar- 
lings ? 



118 MANUEES. 



CHAPTEB V. 

COMPOSTING SIZABLE MANUKE. 

In composting stable manure in the most economical 
manner, the evaporation of the organic parts and 
the leaching of the ashy (and other) portions must 
be avoided, while the condition of the mass is such as 
to admit of the perfect decomposition of the manure. 
Solid manures in their fresh state are of but very 
little use to plants. It is only as they are decom- 
posed, and have their nitrogen turned into ammonia, 
and their other ingredients resolved into the condi- 
tion required by plants, that they are of much value 
as fertilizers. We have seen that, if this decomposi- 
tion takes place Avithout ptroper precautions being 
made, the most valuable parts of the manure would 
be lost. Nor would it be prudent to keep manures 
from decomposing until they are applied to the soil, 
for then they are not immediately ready for use, and 
time is lost. By composting, we aim to save every 
thing while we prepare the manures for immediate 
use. 



What principles should regulate us in composting ? 
In what condition is solid dung of value as a fertilizer? 
What do we aim to do in composting ? 



MANURES. 119 



SHELTER. 



The first consideration in preparing for compost- 
ing, is to j)rovide j)roper shelter. This may be done 
either by means of a shed or by arranging a cellar 
under the stables, or in any other manner that may 
be dictated by circumstances. It is no doubt better 
to have the manure shed enclosed so as to make it 
an effectual protection ; this however is not ab- 
solutely necessary if the roof project far enough over 
the compost to shelter it from the sun's rays and from 
driving rains. 

The importance of some protection of this kind, 
is evident from what has already been said, and 
indeed it is impossible to make an economical use of 
manures without it. The trifling cost of building a 
shed, or preparing a cellar, is amply repaid in the 
benefit resulting from their uses. 



THE FLOOR. 

The floor or foundation on which to build the 
compost deserves some consideration. It may be of 
plank tightly fitted, a hard bed of clay, or better, a 
cemented surface. Whatever material is used in its 
construction (and stiff clay mixed with water and 

What is the first consideration for composts ? 
DeBoribr^ the arrangement of floor. 



120 MANURES. 

beaten compactly down answers an excellent purpose), 
the floor must have such an inclination as will cause 
it to discharge water only at one point. That is, 
one part of the edge must be lower than the rest of 
the floor, which must be so shaped that water will 
rnn towards this point from every part of it ; then — 
the floor being water-tight — all of the liquids of the 
compost may be collected in a 



TANK. 

This tank used to collect the liquids of the ma- 
nure may be made by sinking a barrel or hogshead 
(according to the size of the heap) in the ground at ^ 
the point where it is required, or in any other con- 
venient manner. 

In the tank a pump of cheap construction may 
be placed, to raise the liquid to a sufficient height to 
be conveyed by a trough to the centre of the heap, 
and there distributed by means of a perforated board 
with raised edges, and long enough to reach across the 
heap in any direction. By altering the position of 
this board, the liquid may be carried evenly over 
the whole mass. 

The appearance of the apparatus required for com- 
posting, and the compost laid up, may be better 
shown by the following figure. 

Ho-w should the tank be attached ? 



MANURES. 



121 




Kg. 2. 

a, tank ; h, pump ; c 8z g, perforated board ; d, muck ; 

6, manure ; /, floor. 

The compost is made by laying on the floor ten 
or twelve inches of muck, and on that a few inches 
of manure, then another heavy layer of muck, and 
another of manure, continuing in this manner until 
the heap is raised to the required height, always having 
a thick layer of muck at the top. 

After laying up the heap, the tank should be 
filled with liquid manure from the stables, slops from 



How is the compost made ? 
6 



122 MANURES. 

the house, soap-suds, or other water containing fer- 
tilizing matter, to be pumped over the mass. There 
should be enough of the liquid to saturate the heap 
and filter through to fill the tank twice a week, at 
which intervals it should be again pumped up, thus 
continually being passed through the manure. This 
liquid should not be changed, as it contains much 
soluble manure. Should the liquid manures named 
above not be sufficient, the quantity may be in- 
creased by the use of rain-water. That falling 
during the first ten minutes of a shower is the best, 
as it contains much ammonia. 

The effects produced by frequently watering the 
compost is one of the greatest advantages of this 
system. 

The soluble portions of the manure are equally 
diffused through every part of the heap. . 

Should the heat of fermentation be too great, the 
watering will reduce it. 

When the compost is saturated with water, the 
air is driven out ; and, as the water subsides, fresh 
air enters and takes its place. This fresh air con- 
tains oxygen, which assists in the decomposition of 
the manure. 

In short, the watering does all the work of fork- 
ing over by hand much better and much more cheaply. 

What liquids are best for moistening the compost ? 
How should they be applied ? 
"What are the advantages of this moistening? 
How does it compare with forking over f 



MANURES. 123 

At the end of a month or more^ this compost will 
be ready for use. The layers in the manure will 
have disappeared, the whole mass having become 
of a uniform character, highly fertilizing, and ready 
to be immediately used by plants. 

It may be applied to the soil, either as a top- 
dressing, or otherwise, without fear of loss, as the 
muck will retain all of the gases which would 
otherwise evaporate. 

The cost and trouble of the foregoing system of 
composting are trifling compared with its advantages. 
The quantity of the manure is much increased, and 
its quality improved. The health of the animals is 
secured by the retention of those gases, which, when 
allowed to escape, render impm^e the air which they 
have to breathe. 

The cleanliness of the stable and yard is much 
advanced as the effete matters, which would other- 
wise litter them, are carefully removed to the compost. 

As an instance of the profit of composting, it may 
be stated that Prof Mapes has decomposed ninety- 
two cords of swamp muck, with four hundred bushels 
of the lime and salt mixture, and then composted 
it with eight cords oi fresh horse dung, making one 
hundred cords of manure fully equal to the same 
amount of stable-manure alone, which has lain one 



Why will the ammonia of manure thus made, not escape if it 
be used as a top dressing? 

What are the advantages of preparing manures in this manner? 
What is the profit attending it? 



124 MANURES. 

year exposed to tlie weather. Indeed one cord of 
muck well decomposed, and containing the chlorine 
lime and soda of four bushels of the mixture, is of itself 
equal in value to the same amount of manure which 
has lain in an open barn-yard during the heat and 
rain of one season, and is then applied to the land 
in a raw or undecomposed state. 

The foregoing system of composting is the best 
that has yet been suggested for making use of solid 
manures. Many other methods may be adopted 
when circumstances will not admit of so much at- 
tention. It is a common and excellent practice to 
throw prepared muck into the cellar under the stables, 
to be mixed and turned over with the manure by 
swine. In other cases the manures are kept in the 
yard, and are covered with a thin layer of muck 
every morning. The principle which renders these 
systems beneficial is the absorbent power of charcoal. 



LIQUID MANURE. 

Liquid manure from animals may, also, be made 
useful by the assistance of prepared muck. Where 
a tank is used in composting, the liquids from the 
stable may all be employed to supply moisture to the 
heap ; but where any system is adopted, not requir- 

In what other manners may muck be used in the preservation 
of manures ? 

How may liquid manure be made most useful ? 



MANURES. 



125 



ing liquids, the urine may be applied to muck heaps, 
and then allowed to ferment. Fermentation is ne- 
cessary in urine as well as in solid dung, before it is 
very active as a manure. Urine, as will be recol- 
lected, contains nitrogen and forms ammonia on fer- 
mentation. 

It is a very good plan to dig out the bottoms of 
the stalls in a circular or gutter-like form, three or 
four feet deep in the middle, cement the ground, 
or make it nearly water-tight, by a plastering of 
stiff clay, and fill them up with prej)ared muck. 
The appearance of a cross section of the floor thus 
arrano:ed would be as follows : 




Fig. 3. 

The prepared muck in the bottom of the stalls 
would absorb the urine as soon as voided, while yet 
warm with the animal heat, and receive heat from 
the animal's body while lying down at night. This 

Describe the manner of digging out the bottoms of stalls. 



126 MANURES. 

heat will hasten the decomposition of the urea/*'* 
and if the muck be renewed twice a month, and 
that which is removed composted under cover, it 
will be found a most prolific source of good manure. 
In Flanders, the liquid manure of a cow is consider- 
ed worth $10 per year, and it is not less valuable 
here. As was stated in the early part of this sec- 
tion, the inorganic (or mineral) matter contained in 
urine, is soluble, and consequently is immediately 
useful as food for plants. 

By referring to the analysis of liquid and solid 
manure, in section Y., their relative value may be 
seen. 



-♦-•-♦- 



CHAPTEK YI. 

DIFFERENT KINDS OF ANIMAL EXCRE- 
MENT. 

The manures of different animals are, of course, of 
different value, as fertilizers, varying according to 
the food, the age of the animals, etc. 

STABLE MANURE. 

By stable manure we mean, usually, that of the 

* The nitrogenous compound in the urine. 



"^ MANURES. 127 

horse, and that of horned cattle. The case describ- 
ed in chap. 2 (of this section) ^ was one where the 
animal was not increasing in any of its parts, but 
returned, in the form of manure, and otherwise, the 
equivalent of every thing eaten. This case is one of 
the most simple kind, and is subject to many modifi- 
cations. 

The growing animal is increasing in size, and as 
he derives his increase from his food, he does not re- 
turn in the form of manure as much as he eats. If 
his bones are growing, he is taking from his food 
phosphate of lime and nitrogenous matter ; conse- 
quently, the manure will be poorer in these ingre- 
dients. The same may be said of the formation of 
the muscles, in relation to nitrogen. 

The fatting animal, if full grown, makes manure 
which is as good as that from animals that are not 
increasing in size, because the fat is taken from those 
parts of the food which is obtained by plants from 
the atmosphere, and from nature, (i. e. from the 1st 
class of proximates). Fat contains no nitrogen, 
and, consequently, does not lessen the amount of 
this insrredient in the manure. 

3Iilch Coius turn a part of their food to the for- 

Is the manure of full-grown animals of the same quality as that 
of other animals ? 

Why does that of the growing animal differ ? 

Why does not the formation of fat reduce the quality of ma- 
nure ? 

"What does milk remove from the food ? 



128 MANURES. 

mation of milk, and consequently, they produce ma- 
nure of reduced value. 

The solid manure of the horse is better than that 
of the ox, while the liquid manure of the ox is com- 
paratively better than that of the horse. The cause 
of this is that the horse has poorer digestive organs 
than the ox, and consequently passes more of the 
valuable parts of his food, in an undigested form, as 
dung, while the ox, from chewing the cud and hav- 
ing more perfect organs, turns more of his food into 
urine than the horse. 



RECAPITULATION. 



^ make the best manure. 



Full Grown animals not 
producing milk, and 
full grown animals fat- 
tening 

Growing Animals reduce the value of their manure, 
taking portions of their food to form their 
bodies. 

Milch Cows reduce the value of their manure by 
changing a part of their food into milk. 

The Ox makes poor dung and rich urine. 

The Horse makes rich dung and poor urine.* 

* Comparatively. 



How do the solid and li>^uid manure of the horae and ox com- 
pare ? 

What occasions these differences ? 



MANURES. 129 



NIGHT SOIL. 

The best manure within the reach of the farmer 
is flight soil, or human excrement. There has al- 
wa3^s been a false dehcacy about mentioning this fer- 
tilizer, which has caused much waste, and great 
loss of health, irom the impure and offensive odors 
which it is allowed to send forth to taint the air. 

The value of the night soil yearly lost in the 
United States is, probably, about ffty millions of 
dollars (50,000,000) ; an amount nearly equal to 
the entire expenses of our National Government. 
Much of the ill health of our people is undoubtedly 
occasioned by neglecting the proper treatment of 
night soil. 

That which directly affects agriculture, as treated 
of in this book, is the value of this substance as a 
fertilizer. The manure of man consists (as is the* 
case with that of other animals) of those parts of 
his food which are not retained in the increase of 
his body. If he be growing, his manure is poorer, 
as in the case of the ox, and it is subject to all 
the other modifications named in the early part of 
this chapter. His food is usually of a varied charac- 
ter, and is rich in nitrogen, the phosphates, and 

"What is the most valuable manure accessible to the farmer? 
What is the probable value of the night soil yearly lost in the 
United States ? 

Of what does the manure of man consist ? 

6* 



130 MANURES. 

other inorganic constituents ; consequently, his ma- 
nure is made valuable by containing large quantities 
of these matters. As is the case with the ox, the 
dung contains the undigested food, the secretions (or 
leakings) of the digestive organs, and the insoluble 
parts of the ash of the digested food. The urine, 
in like manner, contains a large proportion of the 
nitrogen and the soluble inorganic parts of the di- 
gested food. When we consider how much richer 
the /ooc? of man is than that of horned cattle, we 
shall see the superior value of his excrement. 

Night soil has been used as a manure, for ages, 
in China, which is, undoubtedly, one great secret of 
their success in supporting a dense population, for 
so long a time, without impoverishing the soil. It 
has been found, in many instances, to increase the 
productive power of the natural soil three-fold. 
That is, if a soil would produce ten bushels of wheat 
per acre, without manure, it would produce thirty 
bushels if manured with night soil. 

Some have supposed that manuring with night 
soil would give disagreeable properties to plants : 
such is not the case ; their quality is invariably im- 
proved. The color and odor of the rose become 
richer and more delicate by the use of the most of- 
fensive night soil as manure. 



Describe this manure as compared with the excrements of 
other animals. 

Does the use of night soil produce disagreeable properties in 
plants? 



MANURES. 131 

It is evident that this is the case from the fact 
that plants have it for their direct object to make 
over and put together the refuse organic matter, and 
the gases and the minerals found in nature, for the 
use of animals. If there were no natural means of 
rendering the excrement of animals available to 
plants^ the earth must soon be shorn of its fertihty, 
as the elements of growth when once consumed 
would be essentially destroyed, and no soil could 
survive the exhaustion. There is no reason why the 
manure of man should be rejected by vegetation 
more than that of any other animal ; and indeed it 
is not, for ample experience has proved that for most 
soils there is no better manure in existence. 

A single experiment will suffice to show that 
night soil may be so kept that there shall be no loss 
of its valuable gases, and consequently no offensive 
odor arising from it, while it may be removed and 
applied to crops without unpleasantness. All that is 
necessary to effect this wonderful change in night soil, 
and to turn it from its disagreeable character to one 
entirely inoffensive, is to mix with it a httle char- 
coal dust, prepared muck^ or any other good ab- 
sorbent — thus making what is called poudrette. 
The mode of doing this must depend on circum- 
stances. In many cases, it would be expedient to 

"What is the direct object of plants ? 
"What would result if this were not the case? 
How may night soil be easily prepared for use, and its oflfensive 
odor prevented ? 



132 MANURES. 

keep a barrel of the absorbent in the privy and throw 
down a small quantity every day. The effect on the 
odor of the house would amply repay the trouble. 

The manure thus made is of the most valuable 
character, and may be used under any circumstances 
with a certainty of obtaining a good crop. It should 
not be used unmixed with some absorbent, as it is of 
such strength as to kill plants. 

For an analysis of human manure, see Section V. 

HOG MANURE. 

Hog Manure is very valuable, but it must be 
used with care. It is so violent in its action that, 
when applied in a pure form to crops, it often pro- 
duces injurious results. It is liable to make cabbages 
clump-footed, and to induce a disease in turnips 
called ambury (or fingers and toes). The only pre- 
caution necessary is to supply the stye with prepared 
muck, charcoal- dust, leaf-mould, or any absorbent in 
plentiful quantities, often adding fresh supplies. 
The hogs will work this over with the manure ; and, 
when required for use, it will be found an excellent 
fertilizer. The absorbent will have overcome its in- 
jurious tendency, and it may be safely applied to any 
crop. From the variety and rich character of the food 
of this animal, his manure is of a superior quality. 

Should pure uight soil be used as a manure ? 

What precaution is necessary in preparing hog manure for use ? 



MANURES. 133 

Butcliers' hog-pen manure is one of the best fer- 
tilizers known. It is made by animals that live 
almost entirely on blood and other animal refuse, and 
is very rich in nitrogen and the phosphates. It 
should be mixed with prepared muck, or its substitute, 
to prevent the loss of its ammonia, and as a pro- 
tection against its injurious effect on plants. 

POULTRY HOUSE MANURE. 

Next in value to nisrht soil, amono; domestic ma- 
nures, are the excrements of poultry, pigeons, etc. 
Birds live on the nice bits of creation, seeds, insects, 
etc., and they discharge their solid and liquid excre- 
ments together. Poultry-dung is nearly equal in 
value to guano (except that it contains more water), 
and it deserves to be carefully preserved and judi- 
ciously used. It is as well worth twenty-five cents 
per bushel as guano is worth fifty doUars a ton (at 
which price it is now sold). 

Poultry-manure is liable to as much injury from 
evaporation and leaching as is any other manure, and 
equal care should be taken (by the same means) to 
prevent such loss. Good shelter over the roosts, and 
daily sprinkling with prepared muck or charcoal- 
dust will be amply repaid by the increased value of 



Why is the mannre from butchers' hog- pens very valuable? 
How does the value of poultry manure compare with that of 
guano? 

How may it be protected against loss ? 



134 MANURES. 

the manure, and its better action and greater dura- 
bility in the soil. The value of this manure should 
be taken into consideration in calculating the profit 
of keeping poultry (as indeed with all other stock). 
It has been observed by a gentleman of much ex- 
perience, in poultry raising, that the yearly manure of 
a hundred fowls applied to previously unmanured 
land would produce extra corn enough to keep them 
for a year. This is probably a large estimate, but it 
serves to show that this fertilizer is very valuable, and 
also that poultry may be kept with great profit, if 
their excrements are properly secured. 

The manure of pigeons has been a favorite fer- 
tihzer in some countries for more than 2000 years. 

Market gardeners attach much value to rabbit- 
manure. 



SHEEP MANURE. 

The manure of sheep is less valuable than it 
would be, if so large a quantity of the nitrogen and 
mineral parts of the food were not employed in the 
formation of wool. This has a great effect on the 
richness of the excrements, but they are still a very 
good fertilizer, and should be protected from loss in 
the same way as stable manure. 

What can you say of the manure of sheep? 



MANURES. 135 



GUANO. 

Guano as a manure has become world renowned. 
The worn-ont tobacco lands of Vh-ginia, and other 
fields in many parts of the country, which seemed to 
have yielded to the effect of an ignorant course of 
cultivation, and to have sunk to their final repose, 
have in many cases been revived to the production of 
excellent crops, and have had their value multiplied 
many fold by the use of guano. Although an excellent 
manure, it should not cause us to lose sight of those 
valuable materials which exist on almost every farm. 
Every ton of guano imported into the United States 
is an addition to our national wealth, but every ton 
of stable-manure, or poultry-dung, or night soil 
evaporated or carried away in rivers^ is equally a de- 
duction from our riches. If the imported manure is 
to really benefit us, we must not allow it to occasion 
the neglect and consequent loss of our domestic fer- 
tilizers. 

The Peruvian guano (which is considered the 
best) is brought from islands near the coast of Peru. 
The birds which frequent these islands hve almost 
entirely on fish, and drop their excrements here in 
a climate where rain is almost unknown, and where, 
from the dryness of the air, there is but little loss 



Should the use of guano induce us to disregard other manures? 
Where and in what manner is the best guano deposited ? 



136 MANURES. 

sustained by the manure. It is brought to this 
country in large quantities^ and is an excellent fer- 
tilizer, superior even to night soil. 

It should be mixed with an absorbent before 
being used, unless it is plowed deeply under the soil, 
as it contains much ammonia which would be lost from 
evaporation. It would probably also injure plants. 
The best way to use guano, is in connection with 
sulphuric acid and bones, as will be described here- 
after. 

The composition of the various kinds of guano 
may be found in the section on analysis. 



• • • 



CHAPTEK YII. 

OTHER ORGANIC MANURES. 

The number of organic manures is almost count- 
less. The most common of these have been de- 
scribed in the previous chapters on the excrements 
of animals. The more prominent of the remaining 
ones will now be considered. As a universal rule, it 
may be stated that all organic matter (every thing 
which has had vegetable or animal life) is capable 
of fertilizing plants. 

How should it be prepared for use ? 



MANURES. 137 



DEAD ANIMALS. 

The bodies of animals contain mucli nitrogen, 
as well as valuable quantities, the phosphates and 
other inorganic materials required in the growth of 
plants. On their decay, the nitrogen is resolved into 
ammonia/'' and the mineral matters become valuable 
as food for the inorganic parts of plants. 

If the decomposition of animal bodies takes place 
in exposed situations, and without proper precautions, 
the ammonia escapes into the atmosphere, and much 
of the mineral portion is leached out by rains. The 
use of absorbents, such as charcoal-dust, prepared 
muck, etc., v/ill entirely prevent evaporation, and 
will in a great measure serve as a protection against 
leaching. 

If a dead horse be cut in pieces and mixed with 
ten loads of muck, the whole mass will, in a single 
season, become a most valuable compost. Small 
animals, such as dogs, cats, etc., may be with ad- 
vantage buried by the roots of grape-vines or trees. 



* Under some circumstances, nitric acid is formed, which is 
equally beneficial to vegetable growth. 



"What are the chief fei'tilizing constituents of dead animals? 
"What becomes of these whf n exposed to the atmosphere ? 
How may this be prevented ? 



138 MANURES. 



BONES. 

The hones of animals contain phosphate of lime 
and gelatine. The gelatine is a nitrogenous sub- 
stance, and produces ammonia on its decomposition. 
This subject will be spoken of more fully under the 
head of ' phosphate of lime ' in the chapter on mineral 
manures, as the treatment of bones is more directly 
with reference to the fertilizing value of their inor- 
ganic matter. 

FISH. 

In many localities near the sea-shore large quan- 
tities of fish are caught and applied to the soil. 
These make excellent manure. They contain much 
nitrogen, which renders them strongly ammoniacal 
on decomposition. Their bones consist of phos]3hate 
and carbonate of lime ; and, being naturally soft, 
they decompose in the soil with great facility, and 
become available to plants. The scales of fish con- 
tain valuable quantities of nitrogen, phosphate of 
lime, etc., all of which are highly useful. 

Eefuse fishy matters from markets and from the 
house are well worth saving. These and fish caught 
for manure may be made into compost with prepared 

Of what do the bones of animals consist? 

What is gelatine ? 

Describe the fertilizing qualities of fish. 



MANURES. 139 

muck, etc. ; and, as they putrefy rapidly, they soon 
become ready for use. They may be added to the 
compost of stable manure with great advantage. 

Fish (like all other nitrogenous manures) should 
never be apphed as a top dressing, unless previously 
mixed with a good absorbent of ammonia, but should 
when used alone be immediately plowed under to con- 
siderable depth, to prevent the evaporation — and con- 
sequent loss — of their fertilizing gases. 

WOOLLEN RAGS, ETC. 

Woollen rags, hair, waste of luoollen factories, etc., 
contain both nitrogen and phosphate of lime ; and, 
like all other matters containing these ingredients, 
are excellent manures, but must be used in such a 
way as to prevent the escape of their fertihzing gases. 
They decom^DOse slowly, and are therefore considered 
a lasting manure. Like all lasting manures, how- 
ever, they are sloiu in their effects, and the most ad- 
vantageous way to use them is to compost them with 
stable manure, or with some other rapidly ferment- 
ing substance, which will hasten their decomposition 
and render them sooner available. 

Kags, hair, etc., thus treated, wdll in a short 
time be reduced to such a condition that they may 
be immediately used by plants instead of lying in the 

Should these be applied as a top dressing to the soiH 
What are the fertilizing properties of woollen rags? 
What is the best way to use them ? 



140 MANURES. 

« 

soil to be slowly taken up. It is better in all cases 
to have manures act quickly and give an immediate 
return for their cost, than to lie for a long time in 
the soil before their influence is felt. 

A })ound of woollen rags is worth, as a manure, 
twice as much as is paid for good linen shreds for 
paper making ; still, while the latter are always pre- 
served, the former are thrown away, although con- 
sidered by good judges to be worth forty times as 
much as barn-yard manure. 

Old leather should not be thrown away. It de- 
composes very slowly, and consequently is of but a 
little value ; but, if put at the roots of young trees, 
it will in time j^roduce appreciable effects. 

Tanners' and curriers' refuse, and all other ani- 
mal offal, including that of the slaughter-house, is 
well worth attention, as it contains more or less of 
those two most important ingredients of manures, 
nitrogen and j)hosphate of lime. 

It is unnecessary to add that, in common with 
all other animal manures, these substances must be 
either composted, or immediately plow^ed under 
the soil. Horn piths, and horn shavings, if decom- 
posed in compost, with substances which ferment 
rapidly, make very good manure, and are worth fully 
the price charged for them. 

What is their value compared with that of farm-yard manure.' 

How should old leather be treated ? 

Describe the manurial properties of tanners' refuse. 

How should they be treated ? 

Are horn piths, etc. valuable? 



MANURES. 141 



ORGANIC MANURES OF VEGETABLE ORIGIN. 

Muck, the most important of the purely vegeta- 
ble manures, has been already sufficiently described. 
It should be particularly borne in mind that, when 
first taken from the swamp it is often sour, or cold, 
but that if exposed for a long time to the air, or if 
well treated wdth lime, unleached ashes, the lime 
and salt mixture, or any other alkali, its acids will 
be neutralized (or overcome), and it becomes a good 
application to any soil, except peat or other soils al- 
ready containing large quantities of organic matter. 
In applying muck to the soil (as has been before 
stated), it should be made a vehicle for carrying 
ammoniacal manures. 

SPENT TAN BARK. 

Spent tan hark, if previously decomposed by the 
use of the lime and salt mixture, or potash, answers 
all the purposes of prepared muck, but is more dif- 
ficult of decomposition. 

The bark of trees contains a larger proportion of 
inorganic matter than the wood, and much of this, 
on the decomposition of the bark, becomes available . 
as manure. The chemical effect on the bark, of 



Why is decomposed bark more fertilizing than that of decayed 
wood ? 



142 MANURES. 

using it in the tanning of leather, is such as to ren- 
der it difficult to be rotted by the ordinary means, 
but, by the use of the lime and salt mixture it may 
be reduced to the finest condition, and becomes a 
most excellent manure. It probably contains small 
quantities of nitrogen (obtained from the leather), 
which adds to its value. Unless tan bark be com- 
posted with lime, or some other alkali, it may pro- 
duce injurious effects from the tannic acid which it 
is liable to contain. Alkaline substances will neutral- 
ize this acid, and prevent it from being injurious. 

One great benefit resulting from the use of spent 
tan bark, is due to its power of absorbing moisture 
from the atmosphere. For this reason it is very va- 
luable for mulching^'-' young trees and plants when 
first set out. 



SAWDUST. 

Sawdust in its natural state is of very Httle va- 
lue to the land, but when decomposed, as may be 
done by the same method as was described for tan 
bark, it is of some importance, as it contains a large 
quantity of carbon. Its ash, too, which becomes 

* See the glossary at the end of the book. 

How may bark be decomposed? 

Why should tan bark be composted with an alkali ? 

Why is it good for mulching? 

Is sawdust of any value ? 



MANURES. 143 

available, contains soluble inorganic matter, and in 
this way it acts as a direct manure. So far as con- 
cerns the value of the ash, however, the bark is su- 
perior to sawdust. Sawdust maybe partially rotted 
by mixing it with strong manure (as hog manure), 
while it acts as a divisor, and prevents the too ra- 
pid action of this when applied to the soil. Some 
kinds of sawdust, such as that from beech wood, 
form acetic acid on their decomposition, and these 
should be treated with, at least, a sufficient quantity 
of lime to correct the acid. 

Soot is a good manure. It contains much carbon, 
and has, thus far, all of the beneficial effects of char- 
coal dust. The sulphur, which is one of its consti- 
tuents, not only serves as food for plants, but, from 
its odor, is a good protection against some insects. 
By throwing a handful of soot on a melon vine, or 
young cabbage plant, it will keep away many in- 
sects. 

Soot contains some ammonia, and as this is in 

the form of a sulphate, it is not volatile, and conse- 
quently does not evaporate when the soot is applied 
as a top dressing, which is the almost universal cus- 
tom. 



Why is sawdust a good addition to the pigstye ? 
Wliat is the peculiarity of sawdust from the beech, etc. ? 
What is a peculiarity of soot? 

Why may soot be used as a top dressing without losing its 
ammonia ? 



144 MANURES. 



GREEN CROPS. 

Green crops ^ to plough under, are in many places 
largely raised, and are always beneficial. The plants 
most used for this purpose, in our country, are clover, 
buckwheat, and peas. These plants have very long 
roots, which they send deep in the soil, to draw up 
mineral matter for their support. This mineral 
matter is deposited in the plant. The leaves and 
roots receive carbonic acid and ammonia from the 
air, and from water. In this manner they obtain 
their carbon. When the crop is turned under the 
soil, it decomposes, and the carbon, as well as the 
mineral ingredients obtained from the subsoil, are 
deposited in the surface soil, and become of use to 
succeeding crops. The hollow stalks of the buck- 
wheat and pea, serve as tubes, in the soil, for the 
passage of air, and thus, in heavy soils, give a much 
needed circulation of atmospheric fertilizers. 

Although green crops are of great benefit, and 
are managed with little labor, there is no doubt but 
the same results may be more economically produced. 
A few loads of prepared niuck will do more towards 
increasing the organic matter in the soil, than a very 
heavy crop of clover, while it would be ready for 
/mmediate cultivation, instead of having to lie idle 

What plants are most used as green crops ? 

"What office is performed by the roots of green crops ? 

How do euch manures increase thdS organic matter of soils ? 



MANURES. 145 

daring the year required in the production and de- 
composition of the green crop. The effect of tlfb 
roots penetrating the subsoil is, as we have seen, to 
draw up inorganic matter, to be deposited withiix 
reach of the roots of future crops. In the next sec- 
tion we shall show that this end may be much more 
efficiently attained by the use of the subsoil plow, 
which makes a passage for the roots into the subsoil, 
where they can obtain for themselves what would, in 
the other case, be brought up for them by the roots 
of the green crop. 

The offices of the hollow straws may be perf )rmed 
by a system of ridging and back furrowing, having 
previously covered the soil with leaves, or other refuse 
organic material. 

In high fanning^ where the object of the cul- 
tivator is to make a profitable investment of la- 
bor, these last named methods will be found most 
expedient ; but, if the farmer have a large quantity 
of land, and can afford but a limited amount of la- 
bor, the raising of green crops, to be plowed under 
in the fall, will probably be adopted. 

Before closing this chapter, it may be well to re-^ 
mark that there are various other fertilizers, such as 

What office is performed by the straw of the buckwheat and 
pea? 

What tre-itment may be substituted for the use of green croj)S? 

Which course shouid be adopted in higli farming? 

Why is the u^e of gi-een crops preferable in d diuary cultiva- 
tion ? 

Name some other valuable manurea. 



146 MANURES. 

the OAnmoniacal liquor of gas-Jiouses, soapers' wastes, 
IMaoIiers' lye, lees of old oil casks, etc., which we 
have not space to consider at length, but which are 
all valuable as additions to the compost heap, or as 
applications, in a liquid form, to the soil. 

In many cases (when heavy manuring is prac- 
tised), it may be well to apply organic manures to 
the soil in a green state, turn them under, and allow 
them to undergo decomposition in the ground. The 
advantages of this system are, that the heat, result- 
ing from the chemical changes, will hasten the growth 
of plants, by making the soil warmer ; the carbonic 
acid formed will be presented to the roots instead of 
escaping into the atmosphere ; and if the soil be 
heavy, the rising of the gases will tend to loosen it, 
and the leaving vacant of the spaces occupied by the 
solid matters will, on their being resolved into gases, 
render the soil of a more porous character. As a 
general rule, however, in ordinary farming, where the 
amount of manure applied is only sufficient for the 
supply of food to the crop, it is undoubtedly better 
to have it previously decomposed — cooked as it were, 
for the uses of the plants—as they can then obtain 
the required amount of nutriment as fast as needed. 

What are the advantages arising from burying manure in its 
green state ? 

Which is generally preferable, this course, or composting? 
Why? 



MANURES. 



147 



ABSOKPTION OF MOISTURE. 



It is often convenient to know the relative power 
of different manures to absorb moisture from the 
atmosphere, especially when we wish to manure 
lands that suffer from drought. The following re- 
sults are given by C. W. Johnson, in his essay on 
salt, (pp. S and 19). In these experiments the ani- 
mal manures were employed ^vithout any admixture 
of straw. 

PARTS 

1000 parts of horse dung, dried in a tempera- 
ture of 100^, absorbed by expo- 
sure for three hours, to air saturated 
with moisture, of the temperature of 
62° 145 

1000 parts of cow dung, under the same cir- 





cum stances, absorbed 


130 


1000 parts pig dung 


120 


1000 ' 


' sheep " 


81 


1000 ' 


' pigeon " 


50 


1000 ' 


' rich alluvial soil 


14 


1000 ' 


' fresh tanner's bark 


115 


1000 ' 


' putrified " 


145 


1000 ' 


^ refuse marine salt sold as manure 


49^ 


IQjOO ' 


' soot 


36 


1000 ' 


^ burnt clay 


29 


1000 ' 


^ coal ashes 


14 


1000 ' 


^ lime 


11 



148 MANURES. 

PARTS. 

1000 parts sediment from salt pans 10 

1000 " cruslied rock salt 10 

1000 " gypsum 9 

1000 " salt 4* 

Muck is a most excellent absorbent of moisture, 
when thoroughly decomposed. 



DISTRIBUTION OF MANURES. 

The following table from Johnson, on manures, 
will be found convenient in the distribution of man- 
nures. 

By its assistance the farmer will know how 
many loads of manure he requires, dividing each 
load into a stated number of heaps, and placing 
them at certain distances. In this manner manure 
may be applied evenly, and calculation may be made 
as to the amount, per acre, which a certain quantity 
will supply, t 

* "Worliing Farmer, vol. 1, p. 55. 

\ It is not necessary that this and the foregoing table should 
be learned by the scholar, but they will be found valuable for ref- 
erence by the fjirmer. 



MANURES. 



149 



DISTANCE 
OF 


NUMBER OF HEAPS IN A LOAD. 






THE HEAPS. 


1 

538 


2 
269 


3 
179 


4 
134 


5 

108 


6 

89| 


7 

77 


8 
67 


9 
60 


10 


3 yards. . . 


64 


3i do. . . 


895 


168 


132 


99 


79 


66 


56i 


49i 


44 


39^ 


4 do. . . 


303 


151 


101 


75i 


60i 


50i 


43i 


37f 


33-1 


301. 


4i dc. . . 


239 


120 


79i 


60 


47 f 


39f 


34i 


30 


26^ 


24 


5 do. . . 


194 


97 


64i 


48i 


38f 


32i 


27f 


24i 


2H 


m 


5^ do. . . 


160 


80 


53i 


40 


32 


26f 


22f 


20 


I7f 


.6 


6 do. . . 


131 


67 


44f 


33i 


27 


22i 


m 


161 


15 


I'H 


6i do. . . 


115 


57i 


38i 


28| 


23 


19 


16i 


14i 


12f 


IH 


7 do. . . 


99 


49i 


33 


24f 


19f 


m 


14 


12i 


11 


10 


7i do. . . 


86 


43 


28 1 


2U 


m 


14i 


m 


lOf 


94- 


H 


8 do. . . 


75^ 


371 


25i: 


19 


151 


12^ 


lOf 


H 


8^ 


n 


Si do. . . 


67 


33i 


22i 


16f 


M3i 


Hi 


9i 


H 


n 


6f 


9 do. . . 


60 


30 


20 


15 


12 


10 


8h 


n 


6f 


6 


9i do. . . 


53i 


26| 


18 


13i 


lOf 


9 


7f 


6f 


6 


5i 


10 do. . . 


48^ 


24i 


m 


12 


9f 


8 


7 


6 


5^ 


4f 



Example 1. — Required, the number of loads necessary to ma- 
nure an acre of ground, dividing each load into six heaps, and 
placing them at a distance of 4^ yards from each other ? The an- 
swer by the table is 39f. 

Example 2. — A farmer has a field containing 6^ acres, over 
which he wishes to spread 82 loads of dung. Now 82 divided by 
5^, gives 15 loads per acre; and by referring to the table, it will 
be seen that the desired object may be accomplished, by making 
4 heaps of a load, and placing them 9 yards apart, or by 9 heaps 
at 6 yards, as may be thought advisable. 



• » ♦ 



CHAPTER VIII. 



MINERAL MANURES. 



The second class of manures named in the gene- 



150 MANURES. 

ral division of the subject, in the early part of this 
chapter, comprises those of a mineral character, or 
inorganic manures. 

These manures have four kinds of action when 
applied to the soil. 

1st. They furnish food for the inorganic part of 
plants. 

2d. They prepare matters already in the soil, for 
assimilation by roots. 

3d. They improve the mechanical condition of 
the soil. 

4th. They absorb ammonia. 

Some of the mineral manures produce in the soil 
only one of these effects, and others are efficient in 
two or all of them. 

The principles to be considered in the use of 
mineral manures are essentially given in the first 
two sections of this book. It may be well, however, 
to repeat them briefly in this connection, and to give 
the reasons why any of these manures are needed, 
from which we may learn what rules are to be ob- 
served in their application. 

1st. Those which are used as food by j^lants. It 
will be recollected that the ash left after burning 
plants, and which formed a j)art of their structures, 
has a certain chemical composition ; that is, it con- 
sists of alkalies, acids, and neutrals. It was also 

How many kinds of action have inorganic manures ? 

What is the first of these ? The second ? Third ? Fourth ? 

Do all mineral manures possess all of these qualities ? 



MANURES, 151 

stated that the ashes of plants of the same kind are 
always of about the same composition, while the 
ashes of different kinds of j)lants may vary materially. 
Different parts of the same plant too, as we learned, 
are supplied with different kinds of ash. 

For instance, clover, on being burned, leaves 
an ash containing lime, as one of its principal in- 
gredients, w^hile the ash oi potatoes contains more of 
potash than of any thing else. 

In the second section (on soils), we learned that 
some soils contain every thing necessary to make the 
ashes of all plants, and in sufficient quantity to sup- 
ply what is required, while other soils are either 
entirely deficient in one or more ingredients, or con- 
tain so little of them that they are unfertile for cer- 
tain plants. 

From this, we see that we may pursue either one 
of two courses. After we know the exact composi- 
tion of the soil — which we can learn only from cor- 
rect analysis — we may manure it with a view either 
to making it fertile for all kinds of plants or only for 
one particular plant. For instance, we may find 
that a soil contains a very little phosphoric acid, and 
no potash. If we wish to raise potatoes on such a 
soil, we have only to apply potash (if the soil is good 



Relate what you know of the properties of ve2je table ashes ? 
How does this relate to the fertility of the soil ? 
Accor4ing to what two rules may we apply mineral manures? 
What course would you pursue to raise potatoes on a soil con- 
taining a very little phosphoric acid and no potash ? 



152 MANURES. 

in other particulars), which is largely required by this 
plant, though it needs but little phosphoric acid ; 
vvliile, if we wish to make it fertile for wheat, and all 
other plants, we must apply more phosphoric acid 
as well as postash. As a universal rule, it may 
be stated that to render a soil fertile for any par- 
ticular plant, we must supi)ly it (unless it already 
contains them) with those matters which are neces- 
sary to make the ash of that plant ; and, if we would 
render it capable ol producing all kinds of plants, it 
must be furnished wiih the materials required in the 
formation of all kinds of vegetable ashes. 

It is not absolutely necessary to have the soil 
analyzed before it can be cultivated with success, 
but it is the cheapest way. 

We might proceed from an analysis of the plant 
required (which will be found in Section V.), and 
ap|)ly to the soil in the form of manure every thing 
that is necessarv for the formation of the ash of 
that plant. This would give a good crop on ani/ 
soil that was in the proper 'mechanical condition, and 
contained enough organic matter ; but a moment's 
reflection will show that, if the soil contained a large 
amount of potash, or of phosphate of lime, it would 
not be necessary to make an ap})lication of more of 
these ingredients — at an expense of jjerhaps three 
times the cost of an analysis. It is true that, if the 



Would you manure it iu the same way for wheat? 

Why ? 



MANURES. 153 

crop is sold, and it i^ desired to maintain the fertility 
of the soil, the full amovrnt of the ash must be applied, 
either before or after the crop is grown ; but, in the 
ordinary use of crops for feeding purposes, a large 
part of the ash will exist in the excrements of the 
animals ; so that the judicious farmer will be able to 
-manure his land with more economy than if he had 
to apply to each crop the whole amount and variety 
required for its ash. The best rule for practical 
manuring is probably to strengthen the soil in its 
iveaker points, and prevent the stronger ones from, 
becoming weaker. In this w^ay, the soil may be 
raised to the highest state of fertility, and be fully 
maintained in its productive powers. 

2d. Those manures which render available mat- 
ter already contained in the soil. 

Silica (or sand), it will be recollected, exists in 
all soils ; but, in its pure state, is not capable of 
being dissolved, and therefore cannot be used by 
plants. The alkalies (as has been stated), have the 
power of combining with this silica, making com- 
pounds, which are called silicates. These are 
readily dissolved by water, and are available in vege- 
table growth. Now, if a soil is deficient in these 
soluble silicates, it is well known that grain, etc., 



How is the fertility of the soil to be maintained, if the crops 
are sold? 

What rule is given for general treatment? 

Give an instance of matters in the soil that are to be rendered 
available by mineral manures ? 

7* 



154 MANURES. 

pTOwn on it, not beins; able to obtain the material 
which gives them strength, will fall down or lodge; but, 
if such measures be taken, as will render the sand 
soluble, the straw will be strong and healthy. Alkalies 
used for this purpose, come under the head of those 
manures which develope the natural resources of the 
soil. 

Again, much of the mineral matter in the soil is 
combined within particles, and is therefore out of the 
reach of roots. Lime, among other thing, has the 
effect of causing these particles to crumble and ex- 
pose their constituents to the demand of roots. 
Therefore, lime has for one of its offices the develop- 
ment of the fertilizing ingredients of the soil. 

3d. Those manures \t. hich improve the mechani- 
cal condition of the soil. 

The alkalies, in combining with sand, commence 
their action on the surfaces of the particles, and 
roughen them — rust them as it were. This roughen- 
ing of particles of the soil prevents them from moving 
among each other as easily as they do when they are 
smooth, and thus keeps the soil from being com- 
pacted by heavy rains, as it is liable to be in its na- 
tural condition. In this way, the mechanical texture 
of the soil is improved. 

It has just been said that lime causes the pul- 

Ho-w may silica be developed ? 

How does lime affect soils containing coarse particles ? 
How do mineral manures sometimes improve the mechanical 
texture of the soil ? 



MANURES. 155 

verization of the particles of the soil ; and thus, by- 
making it finer, improves its mechanical condition. 

Some mineral manures, as plaster and salt, have 
the power of absorbing moisture from the atmosphere ; 
and this is a mechanical improvement to dry soils. 

4th. Those mineral manures which have the 
power of absorbing ammonia. 

Plaster, chloride of lime, alumina (clay), etc., 
are large absorbents of ammonia, whether arising 
from the fermentation of animal manures or washed 
down from the atmosphere by rains. The ammonia 
thus absorbed is of course very important in the 
vegetation of crops. 

Having now explained the reasons why mineral 
manures are necessarv, and the manner in which 
they produce their effects, we will proceed to examine 
the various deficiencies of soils and the character of 
many kinds of this class of fertilizers. 



-«-♦-•- 



CHAPTER IX. 

DEFICIENCIES OF SOILS, MEANS OF 
RESTORATION, ETC. 

As will be seen by referring to the analyses of soils 

Name some mineral manures which absorb ammonia? 



156 MANURES. 

on p. 72, they may be deficient in certain ingre- 
dients, which it is the object of mineral manures to 
snp[)ly. These we will take np in order, and endea- 
vor to show in a simple manner the best means of 
managing them in practical farming. 

ALKALIES, 
POTASH. 

Potash is often deficient in the soil. Its de- 
ficiency may have been caused in two ways. Either 
it may not have existed largely in the rock from 
which the soil was formed, and consequently is 
equally absent from the soil itself, or it may have 
once been present in sufficient quantities, and been 
carried away in crops, without being returned to the 
soil in the form of manure until too little remains for 
the requirements of fertility. 

In either case, its absence may be accurately de- 
tected by a skilful chemist, and it may be supjjlied 
by the farmer in various ways. Potash, as well as 
all of the other mineral manures, is contained in 
the excrements of animals, but not (as is also the 
case with the others) in sufficient quantities to 
restore the proper balance to soils where it is largely 

I/O nil soils eont;iiii a sufficient amount of potash ? 

How may its dt'fieie».cy have b;-en caused? 

H<»w mu}- its absence be detected? 

Does barn-yard manure cuutain sufficient potash to supply its 

^efiftieucy in woru-out soiis? 



MANURES. 157 

deficient, nor even to make up for what is yearly 
removed with each crop, except that crop (or its 
equivalent) has been fed to such animals as return 
all of the fertilizing constituents of their food in the 
form of manure, and this be all carefully preserved 
and ap}>lied to the soil. In all other cases, it is ne- 
cessary to apply more potash than is contained in the 
excrements of animals. 

Unleached ivood ashes is generally the most 
available source from which to obtain this alkali. 
The ashes of all kinds of wood contain potash (more 
or less according to the kind — see analysis section 
V.) If the ashes are leached, the potash is removed ; 
and, hence for the purpose *of siiplying it, they are 
worthless ; but unleached ashes are an excellent 
source from which to obtain it. They may be made 
into compost with muck, as directed in a previous 
chapter, or applied directly to the soil. In either 
case the potash is available directly to the plant, or is 
capable of uniting with the silica in the soil to form 
silicate of potash. Neither potash nor any other 
alkali should ever be applied to animal manures 
unless in compost with an absorbent, as they cause 
the ammonia to be thrown off and lost. 

Potash sparlings, or the refuse of potash ware- 



What is orenerally the most available source from which to ob 
tain this alkali ? 

Will leached ashes answer the same purpose ? 
How may ashes be used? 



158 MANUKES. 

houseSj is an excellent manure for lands deficient in 
this constituent. 

Potash marl, such as is. found in ISew Jersey, 
contains a large proportion of potash, and is an ex- 
cellent application to soils requiring it. 

Feldspar, kaolin, and other minerals containing 
potash, are, in some localities, to be obtained in suf- 
ficient quantities to be used for manurial purposes. 

Granite contains potash, and if it can be crushed 
(as is tbe case with some of the softer kinds,) it 
serves a very good purpose. 



SODA. 

Soda, the requirement of which is occasioned 
by the same causes as create a deficiency of potash, 
and all of the other ingredients of vegetable ashes, 
may be very readily supplied by the use of common- 
salt (chloride of sodium), which consists of about one 
half sodium (the base of soda). The best way to 
use salt is in the lime and salt mixture, previously 
described, or as a direct application to the soil. If 
too much salt be given to the soil it will kill any 
plant. In small quantities, however, it is highly 
beneficial, and if six bushels per acre be sown broad- 
cast over the land, to be carried in by rains and dews, 

From what other sources may potash be obtained? 

How may we obtain soda? 

In what quantities should pure salt be applied to the soil ? 



MANURES. 159 

it will not only destroy many insects (grubs, worms, 
etc.), but will, after decomposing and becoming 
chlorine and soda, prove an excellent manure. Salt, 
even in quantities large enough to denude the soil of 
all vegetation, is never j9erma?ie?i^/?/ injurious. After 
the first year, it becomes resolved into its constitu- 
ents, and furnishes chlorine and soda to plants, with- 
out injuring them. One bushel of salt in each cord 
of compost will not only hasten the decomposition 
of the manures, but will kill all seeds and grubs — a 
very desirable effect. While small quantities of salt 
in a compost heap are beneficial, too much (as when 
applied to the soil) is positively injurious, as it ar- 
rests decomposition ; i-dirly picJdes the manures, and 
prevents them from rotting. 

For aspara.gus, which is a marine plant, salt is 
an excellent manure, and may be applied in almost 
unlimited quantities, luliile the plants are growing^ 
if used after they have gone to top, it is injurious. 
Salt has been applied to asparagus beds in such quan- 
tities as to completely cover them, and with apparent 
benefit to the plants. Of course large doses of salt 
kill all weeds, and thus save labor and the injury to 
the asparagus roots, which would result from their 
removal by hoeing. Salt may be used advantag-eously 
in any of the foregoing manners, but should always 
be applied with care. For ordinary farm purposes. 

If applied in large quantities will it produce permanent injury? 
In what quantities should salt be applied to composts ? To 
asparagus ? 



160 MANURES. 

it is undoubtedly most profitable to use the salt with 
lime, and make it perforin the double duty of assist- 
ing in the decomposition of vegetable matter, and 
fertilizing the soil. 

Soda unites with the silica in the soil, and forma 
the valuable silicate of soda. 

Nitrate of soda, or cubical nitre, which is found 
in South America, consists of soda and nitric acid. 
It furnishes both soda and nitrogen to plants, and is 
an excellent manure. 



LIME. 

The subject of lime is one of most vital impor- 
tance to the farmer ; indeed, so varied are its modes 
of action and its effects, that some writers have given 
it credit for every thing good in the way of farming, 
and have gone so far as to say that all permanent 
improvement of agriculture must depend on the use 
of lime. Although this is far in excess of the truth 
(as lime cannot plow, nor drain, nor supply any thing 
but li7ne to the soil), its many beneficial effects de- 
mand for it the closest attention. 

As food for plants, lime is of considerable impor- 
tance. All plants contain lime — some of them in 
large quantities. It is an important constituent of 

^^ hat is generally the best way to use salt ? 
What is nitrate of soi^a? 
What plants contaiD lime? 



MANURES. 161 

straw, meadow hay, leaves of fruit trees, peas, beans, 
and turnips. It constitutes more than one third of 
the ash of red clover. Many soils contain lime 
enouf:^h for the use of plants, in others it is deficient, 
and must be supplied artificially before they can pro- 
duce good crops of those plants of which lime is an 
important ingredient. 'The only way in which the 
exact quantity of lime in the soil can be ascertained 
is by chemical analysis. However, the amount re- 
quired for the mere feeding plants is not large, 
(much less than one per cent.), but lime is often 
necessary for other purposes ; and setting aside, for 
the present, its feeding action, we will examine its 
various effects on the mechanical and chemical con- 
dition of the soil. 

1. It corrects acidity (sourness). 

2. It hastens the decomposition of the organic 
matter in the soil. 

3. It causes the mineral particles of the soil to 
crumble. 

4. By producing the above effects, it prepares 
the constituents of the soil for assimilation by plants. 

5. It is said to exhaust the soil, but it does so in a 
very desirable manner, the injurious effects of which 
may be easily avoided. 

1. The decomposition of organic matter in the 

l)(i all soil? contain enoutrli lime for the use of plants? 
What amount is needed fir this purpo-e ? 
Wliat is it^ tirst-named effect on the soil? 
Its second? Third? Fourth? Fifth? 
How are acids produced in the soil ? 



162 MANURES. 

soil, often produces acids which makes the land sour, 
and cause it to produce sorrel and other weeds, 
which interfere with the healthy growth of crops. 
Lime is an alkali, and if applied to soils suffering 
from sourness, it will unite with the acids, and neu- 
tralize them, so that they will no longer be inju- 
rious. 

2. We have before stated that lime is a decom- 
posing agent, and hastens the rotting of muck and 
other organic matter. It has the same effect on the 
organic parts of the soil, and causes them to be re- 
solved into the gases and minerals of which they are 
formed. It has this effect, especially, on organic 
matters containing nitrogen, causing them to throw 
oft" ammonia ; consequently, it liberates this gas 
from the animal manures in the soil, 

3. Various inorganic compounds in the soil are 
so affected by lime, that they lose their power of 
holding together, and crumble, or are reduced to 
finer particles, while some of their constituents are 
rendered soluble. One way in which this is accom- 
plished is by the action of the lime on the silica con- 
tained in these compounds, forming the silicate of 
lime. Tliis crumbling efi'ect improves the mechani- 
cal as well as the chemical condition of the soil. 

4. We are now enabled to see how lime prepares 
the constituents of the soil for the use of plants. 



How does lime correct them? 

How does it affect auimal manures in the soil? 



MANURES. 163 

By its action on the roots, buried stubble, and 
other organic matter in the soil, it causes them to 
be decomposed, and to give up many of their gaseous 
and inorganic constituents for the use of roots. In 
this manner the organic matter is prepared for use 
more rapidly than would be the case, if there were 
no lime present to hasten its decomposition. 

By the decomposing action of lime on the mine- 
ral parts of the soil (3\ they also are placed more 
rapidly in a useful condition than would be the case, 
if their preparation depended on the slow action of at 
mospheric influences. 

Thus, we see that lime, aside from its use directly 
as food for plants, exerts a beneficial influence on 
both the organic and inorganic parts of the soil. 

5. Many contend that lime exhausts the soil. 

If we examine the manner in which it does so, 
we shall see that this is no argument against its use. 

It exhausts the organic parts of the soil, by de- 
composing them, and resolving them into the gases 
and minerals of which they are composed. If the 
soil do not contain a sufficient quantity of absorbent 
matter, such as clay or charcoal, the gases arising 
from the organic matter are liable to escape ; but 
when there is a sufficient amount of these substances 
present (as there always should be), these gases are 



Inorganic compounds? 

How does lime prepare the constituents of the soil for use? 
What can you say of the remark that lime exhausts the organic 
viatter in the soil? 



164 MANURES. 

all retained until required by the roots of plants. 
Hence, although the organic matter of manure and 
vegetable substances may be altered in form, by 
the use of lime, it can escape (except in very poor 
soils) only as it is taken up by roots to feed the 
crop, and such exhaustion is certainly profitable ; 
still, in order that the fertility of the soil may be 
maintained^ enough of organic manure should be 
applied, to make up for the amount taken from the 
soil by the crop, after liberation for its use by the 
action of the lime. This will be but a small propor- 
tion of the organic matter contained in the crop, as 
it obtains the larger part from the atmosphere. ^ 

The only way in which lime can exhaust the in- 
organic part of the soihis, by altering its condition, 
so that plants can use it more readily. That is, it 
exposes it for solution in water. We have seen that 
fertilizing matter cannot be leached' out of a good 
soil, in any material quantity, but. can only be car- 
ried down to a depth of about thirty-four inches. 
Hence, we see that there can be no loss in this di- 
rection ; and, as inorganic matter cannot evaj)orate 
from the soil, the only w^ay in which it can escape 
is through the structure of plants. 

If lime is applied to the soil, and increases the 
amount of croj)S grown by furnishing a larger supply 
of inorganic matter, of course, the removal of inor- 



How can lime exhaust the mineral parts of the anil? 
Must the matter taken away be retui-ned to the soil? 



MANURES. 165 

ganic substances from the soil will be more rapid 
than when only a small amount of crop is grown, 
and the soil will be sooner exhausted— not by the 
lime, but by the plants. In order to make up for 
this exhaustion, it is necessary that a sufficient 
amount of inorganic matter be supplied to com- 
pensate for the increased quantity taken away by 
plants. 

Thus we see, that it is hardly fair to accuse the 
lime of exhausting the soil, when it only improves its 
character, and increases the amount of its yield. It 
is the crop that takes away the fertility of the soil 
(the same as would be the case if no lime were used, 
only faster as the crop is larger), and in all judicious 
cultivation, this loss will be fully compensated by the 
application of manures, thereby preventing the ex- 
haustion of the soil. 

Kind of lime to he used. The first consideration 
in procuring lime for manuring land, is to select that 
which contains but little, if any magnesia. Nearly 
all stone lime contains more or less of this, but some 
kinds contain more than others. When magnesia 
is applied to the soil, in too large quantities, it is 
positively injurious to plants, and great care is neces- 
sary in making selection. As a general rule, it may 

If this course be pursued, will the soil suffer from the use of 
lime? 

Is it the lime, or its crop, that exhausts the soil ? 
Is lime containing magnesia better than pure lime? 
What IB the best kind of lime ? 



166 MANURES. 

be stated, that the best plastering lime makes the 
best manure. Such kinds only should be used as 
are known from experiment not to be injurious. 

Shell lime is undoubtedly the best of all, for it 
contains no magnesia, and it does contain a small 
quantity of pliosphate of lime. In the vicinity of 
the sea-coast, and near the lines of railroads, oyster 
shells, clam shells, etc., can be cheaply procured. 
These may be prepared for use in the same manner 
as stone lime.'-'' 

The preparation of the lime is done by first burn- 
ing and then slaking, or by putting it directly on 
the land, in an unslaked condition, after its having 
been burned. Shells are sometimes groimd, and 
used without burning ; this is hardly advisable, as 
they cannot be made so fine as by burning and slak- 
ing. As was stated in the first section of this book, 
lime usually exists in nature, in the form of carbon- 
ate of lime, as limestone, chalk, or marble (being 
lime and carbonic acid combined), and when this is 
burned, the carbonic acid is thrown off, leaving the 
lime in a pure or caustic form. This is called burn- 
ed lime, quick-lime, lime shells, hot lime, etc. If 

* Marl is earth containing lime, but its use is not to be recom- 
mended in this country, except where it can be obtained at little 
cost, as the expenses of carting the earth would often be more than 
the value of the lime. 

Is the purchase of marl to be recommended ? 
How is lime prepared for use? (Note.) 
Describe the burning and slaking of lime. 



MANURES. 167 

the proper quantity of water be poured on it, it is 
immediately taken up by the lime, which falls into 
a dry powder, called slaked lime. If quick-lime 
, were left exposed to the weather, it would absorb 
moisture from the atmosphere,-- and become what is 
termed air slaked. 

When slaked lime (consisting of lime and water) 
is exposed to the atmosphere, it absorbs carbonic 
acid, and becomes carbonate of lime again ; but it is 
now in the form of a very fine powder, and is much 
more useful than when in the stone. 

If quick-lime is applied directly to the soil, it 
absorbs first moisture, and then carbonic acid, be- 
coming finally a powdered carbonate of lime. 

One ton of carbonate of lime contains 11 J cwt. 
of lime ; the remainder is carbonic acid. One ton 
of slaked lime contains about 15 cwt. of Kme ; the 
remainder is water. 

Hence we see that lime should be burned, and 
not slaked, before being trans2:)orted, as it would be 
unprofitable to transport the large quantity of car- 
bonia acid and water contamed in carbonate of lime 
and slaked lime. The quick-lime may be slaked, 



What is air slaking? 

If slaked lime be exposed to the air, what change does it un- 
dersro ? 

What is the object of slaking lime? 

How much carbonic acid is contained in a ton of carbonate of 
lime? 

How much lime does a ton of slaked lime contain? 

What is the most <5oonomiGal form for transportation? 



168 MANURES. 

and carbonated after reaching its destination, either 
before or after being applied to the land. 

As has been before stated, much is gained by 
slaking lime with salt ivater, thus imitating the lime 
and salt mixture. Indeed in many cases, it will be 
found profitable to use all lime in this way. Where 
a direct acticm on the inorganic matters contained in 
the soil is desired, it may be well to apply the lime 
directly in the form of quick-lime ; but, where the 
decomposition of the vegetable and animal consti- 
tuents of the soil is desired, the correction oi sourness , 
or the supplying of lime to the crop, the mixture 
with salt would be advisable. 

The amount of lime required by plarits is, as was 
before observed, usually small compared with the 
whole amount contained in the soil ; still it is not un- 
important. 



25 bus. of wheat contain about 


25 " barley 


cc 


25 " oats 


ii 


2 tons of turnips 


'i 


2 " potatoes 


ie 


2 " red clover 


cc 


2 " rye grass 


cc 



OF LIME. 


13 


lbs. 


lOJ 




11 




12 




5 




77 




30 


a Hi 



* The straw producing the grain and the turnip and potato 
tops contain more lime than the grain and roots. 

What is the best form for immediate action on the inorganic 
matter in the soil ? 

For most other purposes f 



MANURES. 169 

The amount of lime required at each apphcation, 
and the frequency of those applications, must depend 
on the chemical and mechanical condition of the soil. 
No exact rule can be given, but probably the custom 
of each district — regulated by long experience — is 
the best guide. 

Lime sinks in tlie soil ; and therefore, when 
u^ed alone, should always be ai^plied as a top dressing 
to be carried into the soil by rains. The tendency of 
lime to settle is so great that, when cutting drains, 
it may often be observed in a whitish streak on the 
top of the subsoil. After heavy doses of lime have 
been given to the soil, and have settled so as to have 
apparently ceased from their action, they may be 
brought up and mixed with the soil by deeper plowing. 

Lime sliould neve?' he mixed with animal manures, 
unless in compost with muck, or some other good 
absorbent, as it is liable to cause the escape of their 
ammonia. 

PLASTER OF PARIS. 

Plaster of Paris or Gypsum (sulphate of lime) 
is composed of sulphuric acid and lime in combina- 
tion. It is called ^plaster of Paris,' because it con- 
stitutes the rock underlying the city of Paris. 

What is the best guide concerning the quantity of lime to be 
applied ? 

What is said of the sinking of lime in tlie soil? 
What is plaster of Pai'is composed of ? 
Why is it called plaster of Paris ? 

8 



170 MANUKES. 

It is a constituent of many plants. It also fur- 
nishes them with sulphur — ^a constituent of the sul- 
phuric acid which it contains. 

It is an excellent ahsorhent of ammonia, and is 
very useful to sprinkle around stahles, poultry houses, 
pig-styes, and privies, where it absorbs the escap- 
ing gases, saving them for the use of plants, and 
purifying the air, thus rendering stables, etc., more 
healthy than when not so supplied. 

It has been observed that the extravagant use 
of plaster sometimes induces the growth of sorrel. 
This is probably the case only where the soil is 
deficient in lime. In such instances, the lime re- 
quired by plants is obtained by the decomposition of 
the plaster. The lime enters into the construction 
of the plant, and the sulphuric acid remains free, 
rendering the soil sour, and therefore in condition to 
produce sorrel. In such a case, an application of 
lime will correct the acid by uniting with it and con- 
verting it into 2^lctst€r. 

CHLORIDE OF LIME. 

Chloride of lime is a compound of lime and 
chlorine. It furnishes both of these constituents to 
plants, and it is an excellent absorbent of ammonia 

Is it a constituent of plants ? 

What else does it furnisli them ? 

How does it affect manure ? 

How does it produce sorrel in the soil ? 

How may the aeidity be overcome ? 



MANURES. 171 

and other gases arising from decomposition — hence 
its usefulness in destroying bad odors, and in pre- 
serring fertihzing matters for the use of crops. 

It may be used like plaster, or in the decomposi- 
tion of organic matters, where it not only hastens 
decay, but absorbs and retains the escaping gases. 
It will be recollected that chloride of lime is one of 
the products of the lime and salt mixture. 

Lime in combination with phosphoric acid forms 
the valuable phosphate of lime, of which so large a 
portion of the ash of grain, and the bones of animals, 
is formed. This will be spoken of more at length 
under the head of ^ phosphoric acid/ 



MAGNESIA. 

Magnesia is a constituent of vegetable ashes, and 
is almost always present in the soil in sufficient 
quantities. When analysis indicates that it is 
needed, it may be applied in the form of magnesian 
lime, or refuse epsom salts, which are composed of 
sulphuric acid and magnesia (sulphate of magnesia). 

The great care necessary concerning the use of 
magnesia is, not to apply too much of it, it being, 



What does chloride of lime supply to plants? 

How does it affect manures? 

How may it be used? 

How may magnesia be supplied, when wanting ? 

What care is necessary concerning the use of magnesia? 



172 MANURES. 

when in excess, as has been previously remarked, in- 
jurious to the fertility of the soil. Some soils are 
hopelessly barren from the fact that they contain too 
much magnesia. 

ACIDS. 
SULPHURIC ACID. 

Sulphuric acid is a very important constituent 
of vegetable ashes, especially of oats and the root- 
crops. 

It is often deficient in the soil, particularly where 
potatoes have been long cultivated. One of the 
reasons why plaster (sulphate of lime) is so beneficial 
to the potato crop is undoubtedly that it supplies it 
with sulphuric acid. 

Sulphuric acid is commonly known by the name 
of 0^7 vitriol, and may be purchased for agricultural 
purposes at a low price. It may be used in a very 
dilute form (weakened by mixing it with a large 
quantity of water) to the compost heaj), where it 
will change the ammonia to a sulphate as soon as 
formed, and thus prevent its loss, as the sulphate of 
ammonia is not volatile ; and, being soluble in water, 
is useful to plants. Some idea of the value of this 
compound may be formed from the fact that manufac- 



What is sulphuric acid commonly called ? 

How may it be used ? 

How does it prevent the escape of ammonia ? 



MANUKES. 173 

turers of manures are willing to pay seven cents per 
lb., or even more, for sulphate of ammonia, to insure 
the success of their fertilizers. Notwithstanding this, 
many farmers persist in throwing away hundreds of 
pounds of ammonia every year, as a tax for their igno- 
rance (or indolence), while a small tax in money — not 
more valuable, nor more necessary to their success — 
for the support of common schools, and the better ed- 
ucation of the young, is too often unwilHngly paid. 

If a tumbler full of sulphuric acid (coating a 
few cents), be thrown into the tank of the compost 
heap once a month, the benefit to the manure would 
be very great. 

Where a deficiency of sulphuric acid in the soil 
is indicated by analysis, it may be supphed in this 
way, or by the use of plaster or refuse epsom salts. 

Care is necessary that too much sulphuric acid 
be. not used, as it would prevent the proper decom- 
position of manures, and would induce a growth of 
sorrel in the soil by making it sour. 

In many instances, it will be found profitable to 
use sulphuric acid in the manufacture of super-phos- 
phate of lime (as directed under the head of ^ phos- 
phoric acid,') thus making it perform the double 
purpose of preparing an available form of phosphate, 
and of supplying sulphur and sulphuric acid to the 
plant. 

"What is tlie effect of using too much sulphuric acid ? 



174 MANURES. 



PHOSPHORIC ACID. 

We come now to tlie consideration of one of tiie 
most important of all subjects connected with agri- 
culture, that is, pliosjplioric acid. 

Fhosphoric acid, forming about one half of the 
ashes of wheat, rye, corn, buck-wheat, and oats ; 
nearly the same proportion of those of barley, peas, 
beans and linseed ; an important ingredient of the ashes 
of potatoes and turnips ; one quarter of the ash of 
milk and a large proportion of the bones of animals, 
often exists in the soil in the proportion of only about 
one or two pounds in a thousand. The cultivation 
of our whole country has been such, as to take away 
the phosphoric acid from the soil without returning 
it, except in very minute quantities. Every hundred 
bushels of wheat sold contains (and removes perma- 
nently from the soil) about sixty pounds of phospho- 
ric acid. Other grains, as well as the root crops and 
grasses, remove likewise a large quantity of it. It has 
been said by a contemporary writer, that for each 
cow kept on a pasture through the summer, there is 
carried oif in veal, butter and cheese, not less ih?injift]/ 
lbs. of j)hosphate of lime (bone-earth) on an average. 



How laro;e a part of the ashes of grain consists of phosphoric 
acid? 

Of what other substances does it form a leading ingredient? 

How many pounds of sulphuric acid are contained in one hun- 
dred bushels of wheat? 



MANURES. 175 

This would be one thousand lbs. for twenty cows • 
and it shows clearly why old dairy pastures become 
so exhausted of this substance, that they will no 
longer produce those nutritious grasses, which are 
favorable to butter and cheese-makins:. 

That this removal of the most valuable consti- 
tuent of the soil, has been the cause of more ex- 
haustion of farms, and more emigration, in search 
of fertile districts, than any other single effect of 
injudicious farming, is a fact which multiplied in- 
stances most clearly prove. 

It is stated that the Genesee and Mohawk 
valleys, which once j)i'oduced an average of thirty- 
Jive or forty bushels of wheat, per acre, have since 
been reduced in their average production to twelve 
and a half bushels. Hundreds of f?imilar cases 
might be stated ; and in a large majority of these, 
could the cause of the impoverishment be ascertain- 
ed, it would be found to be the removal of the phos- 
phoric acid from the soil. 

The evident tendency of cultivation being to 
continue this murderous system, and to prey upon 
the vital strength of the country, it is necessary to 
take such measures as will arrest the outflow of this 
valuable material. This can never be fully accom- 
plished until laws shall be made preventing the wastes 

How much phosphate of lime will twenty cows remove from a 
pasture during a summer? 

What has this removal of phosphate of lime occasioned ? 

How have the Genesee and Mohawk valleys been affected by 
bhis removal of phosphoric acid ? 



176 MANURES. 

of cities and towns. Suoli laws have existed for a 
long time in China, and have doubtlessly been the 
secret of the long subsistence and j)resent prosperity 
of the millions of people inhabiting that country. 

We have, nevertheless, a means of restoring to 
fertility many of our worn-out lands, and preserving 
our fertile fields from so rapid impoverishment as 
they are now suffering. Many suppose that soils 
which produce good crops, year after year, are inex- 
haustible, but time will prove to the contrary. They 
may possess a sufficiently large stock of phosphoric- 
acid, and other constituents of plants, to last a long 
time, but when that stock becomes so reduced, that 
there is not enough left for the uses of full crops, the 
productive power of the soil will yearly decrease, un- 
til it becomes worthless. It may last a long time, 
a centuiy, or even more, but as long as the system 
is — to remove every thing ^ and return nothing, — the 
fate of the most fertile soil is evident. 

The source mentioned, from which to obtain 
phosphoric acid, is the bones of animals. These 
contain large quantities of phosphate of lime. They 
are the receptacles which collect nearly all of the 
phosphates in crojDS, which are fed to animals, and 
are not returned in their excrements. For the grain, 
etc., sent out of the country, there is no way to be 



How may this devastation be arrested ? 
Is any soil inexhaustible ? 

"What is usually the best source from which to obtain phosphoric 
acid ? 



MANURES. 177 

repaid except by the importation of this material ; 
but, all that is fed to animals, or to human beings, 
may, if a proper use be made of their excrement, and 
of their bones after death, be returned to the soil. 
With the treatment of animal excrements we are al- 
ready familiar, and we will now turn our attention to 
the subject of 



BONES. 

Bo7ies consist, when dried, of about one third or- 
ganic matter, and two thirds inorganic matter. 

The organic matter consists chiefly of gelatine — 
a compound containing nitrogen. 

The inorganic part is chiefly phosphate of lime. 

Hence, we see that bones are excellent, as both 
organic and mineral manure. The organic part, 
containing nitrogen, forms ammo7iia, and the inor- 
ganic part suppHes the much needed phosphoric acid 
to the soil. 

Liebig says that, as a producer of ammonia, 100 
lbs. of dry bones are equivalent to 250 lbs. of human 
urine. 

Bones are applied to the soil in almost every con- 
ceivable form. Whole hones are often used in very 



Of what do dried bones consist ? 

What is the organic matter of bones ? 

The inorganic? 

What can you say of the use of whole bones ? 

8* 



178 MANURES. 

large quantities ; their action, however, is extremely 
slow, and it is never advisable to use bones in this 
form. 

Ten bushels of bones, finely ground, will produce 
larger results, during the current ten years after ap- 
plication, than would ensue from the use of one 
hundred bushels merely broken, not because the dust 
contains more fertilizing matter than the whole 
bones, but because that which it does contain is in a 
much more available condition. It ferments readily, 
and produces ammonia, while the ashy parts are ex- 
posed to the action of roots. 

Bone-hlack. If bones are burned in retorts, or 
otherwise protected from the atmosphere, their or- 
ganic matter will all be driven off, except the carbon, 
which not being supplied with oxygen cannot escape. 
In this form bones are called ivory hlacJc, or hoiie- 
hlack. It consists of the inorganic matter, and the 
carbon of the bones. The nitrogen having been ex- 
pelled it can make no ammonia, and thus far the 
original value of bones is reduced by burning ; that 
is, one ton of bones contains more fertilizing mat- 
ter before, than after burning ; but one ton of bone 
black is more valuable than one ton of raw bones, 
as the carbon is retained in a good form to act as an 



How does the value of bone dust compare with that of broken 
'jones ? ' 

What is the reason of the superiority of bone dust? 
How is bone-black made? 
Of what does it cocsist? 



MANURES. 179 

absorbent in the soil, while the whole may be crush- 
ed or ground much more easily than before being 
burned. This means of pulverizing bones is adopted 
by manufacturers, who replace the ammonia in the 
form of guano, or otherwise ; but it is not to be re- 
commended for the use of farmers, who should not 
lose the ammonia, forming a part of bones, more than 
that of other manure. 

Co7nposting hones luith ashes is a good means of 
securing their decomposition. They should be placed 
in a water-tight vessel (such as a cask) ; first, three 
or four inches of bones, then the same quantity of 
strong unleached wood ashes, continuing these alter- 
nate layers until the cask is full, and keeping them 
ahvays wet. If they become too dry they will throw 
off an offensive odor, accompanied by the escape of 
ammonia, and consequent loss of value. In about 
one year, the whole mass of bones (except, perhaps, 
those at the top) will be softened, so that they may 
be easily crushed, and they are in a good condition 
for manuring. The ashes are, in themselves, valu- 
able, and this compost is excellent for many crops, 
particularly for Indian corn. A little dilute sul- 
phuric acid, occasionally sprinkled on the upper part 
of the matter in the cask, will j)revent the escape of 
the ammonia. 

Boiling bones wider pressure^ whereby their gela- 

Should farmers burn bones before using them? 

How would you compost bones with ashes? 

In what way would you prevent the escape of ammonia? 



180 MANUKES. 

tine is dissolved away, and the inorganic matter left 
in an available condition, from its softness, is a very 
good way of rendering them useful ; but,, as it re- 
quires, among other things, a steam boiler, it is 
hardly probable that it will be largely adopted by 
farmers of limited means. 

Any or all of these methods are good, but bones 
cannot be used with true economy, except by chang- 
ing their inorganic matter into 



SUPER-PHOfiPHATE OF LIME. 

Super-pJiospliate of lime is made by treating 
phosphate of lime, or the ashes of bones, with sul- 
phuric acid. 

Phosphate of lime, as it exists in bones, consists 
of one atom of phosphoric acid and three atoms of 
lime. It may be represented as 

C Lime 
Phosphoric acid < Lime 

( Lime 

By adding a proper quantity of sulphuric acid 

with this, it becomes s^fper-phosphate of lime ; that 

is, the same amount of phosphoric acid, with a 

smaller proportion of lime (or a 52^^er-abundance of 



"What is the effect of boiling bones under pressure? 
How is super-phosphate of lime made? 

Describe the composition of phosphate of lime, and the chemical 
changes which take place in altering it to super-phosphate of lime 



Phosj)hate of lime 



MANURES. 181 

phosphoric acid), the sulphuric acid, taking two 
atoms of lime -away from the compound, combined 
with it making sulphate of lime (plaster). The 
changes may be thus represented. 

Phosphoric acid > Super-phos- 
Lime ) phate of lime. 

Lime ') 
^ Lime > Sulphate of hme. 
Sulphuric acid ) 
Super-phosphate of hme may be made from whole 
bones, bone dust, bone-black, or from the pure ashes 
of bones. 

The process of making it from whole bones is 
slow and# troublesome, as it requires a long time for 
the effect to diffuse itself throuo:h the whole mass of 
a large bone. When it is made in this way, the 
bones should be dry, and the acid should be diluted 
in many times its bulk of water, and should be ap- 
plied to the bones (which may be placed in a suit- 
able cask, with a spiggot at the bottom), in quan- 
tities sufficient to cover them, about once in ten 
days ; and at the end of that time, one half of the 
liquid should be drawn off by the spiggot. This 
liquid is a solution of super-phosphate of lime, con- 
taining sulphate of lime, and may be applied to the 
soil in a liquid form, or through the medium of a 
compost heap. The object of using so much water 
is to prevent an incrustation of sulphate of Hme on 



How should sulphuric acid be applied to whole bones? 
What is the necessity for so large an amount of water ? 



182 MANURES. 

the surfaces of the bones, this must be removed 
by stirring the mass, which allows the next applica- 
tion of acid to act directly on the phosphate remain- 
ing-. The amount of acid required is about 50 or 
60 lbs. to each 100 lbs. of bones. The gelatine will 
remain after the phosphate is all dissolved, and may 
be comjDosted with muck, or plowed under the soil, 
where it will form ammonia. 

Bone dust, or crushed hones, may be much more 
easily changed to the desired condition, as the surface 
exposed is much greater, and the acid can act more.^ 
generally throughout the whole mass. The amount 
of acid required is the same as in the other case, but 
it may be used stronger ^ two or three times its bulk 
of water being sufficient, if the bones are finely 
ground or crushed — more or less water should be 
used according to the fineness of the bones. The time 
occupied will also be much less, and the result of the 
operation will be in better condition for manure. 

Bones may be made fine enough for this operation, 
either by grinding, etc., or by boiling under pressure, 
as previously described ; indeed, by whatever method 
bones are pulverized, they should always be treated 
with sulphuric acid before being aj)plied to the soil, 
as this will more than double their value for im- 
mediate use. ' 

Bone-black is chiefly used by manufacturers of 



May less water be employed in making super- phosphate from 
bone dust or crushed bones ? 



MANURES. 183 

super-phosphate of limej who treat it with acid the 
same as has been directed above, only that they 
grind the black very finely before applying the 
acid. 

Bone ashes, or bones burned to whiteness, may be 
similarly treated. Indeed, in all of the forms of 
bones here described, the phosphate of lime remains 
unaltered, as it is indestructible by heat ; the dif- 
ferences of composition are only in the admixture of 
organic constituents. 

The reason lohy super-phosphate of lime is so 
much better than phosphate, may be easily explained. 
The phosphate is very sloiuly soluble in water, 
and consequently furnishes food to plants slowly. 
A piece of bone as large as a pea may lie in the soil 
for years without being all consuiiied ; consequently, 
it Avill be years before its value is returned, and it 
pays no interest on its cost while lying there. The 
super-p)hosphate dissolves very rapidly and furnishes 
food for plants with equal facility ; hence its much 
greater value as a manure. 

It is true that the phosphate is the most lasting 
manure ; but, once for all, let us caution farmers 
against considering this a virtue in mineral manures, 
or in organic manures either, when used on soils con- 



"What other forms of bones may be used in making super-phos- 
phate of lime ? 

Why is super-phosphate of lime a better fertilizer than phos- 
phate of lime ? 

What can you say of the lasting manures? 



184 MANURES. 

taining the proper absorbents of ammonia. They 
are lasting, only in proportion as tliey are lazy. 
Manures are worthless unless they are in condition to 
be immediately used. The farmer who wishes his 
manures to last in the soil, and to lose their use, may 
be justly compared with the miser, who buries his 
gold and silver in the ground for the satisfaction of 
knowing that he owns it. It is an old and a true 
saying that " a nimble sixpence is better than a slow 
shilling." 



IMPROVED SUPER-PHOSPHATE OF LIME. 

To show the manner in which super-phosphate 
of lime is perfected, and rendered the best manure 
for general uses, which has yet been made, contain- 
ing large quantities of phosphoric acid and a good 
supply of ammonia, — hereby covering the two lead- 
ing deficiencies in a majority of soils, it may be well 
to explain the comj^osition of the improved super- 
pliospliate of lime invented by Prof Mapes. 

This manure consists of the following ingredients 
in the proportions named : — 

100 lbs. bone-black (phosphate of lime and carbon). 
5Q " sulphuric acid. 
36 " guano. 



20 " sulphate of ammonia. 



What are tlie ingredieots of the improved super-phosphate of 
lime? 



MANURES. 185 

The sulphuric acid has the before-mentioned 
effect on the bone-black, and fixes the ammonia of 
the guano by changing it to a sulphate. The twenty 
pounds of sulphate of ammonia added increase the 
amount, so as to furnish nitrogen to plants in suf- 
ficient quantities to give them energy, and induce 
them to take up the super-phosphate of lime in the 
manure more readily than would be done, were there 
not a sufficient supply of ammonia in the soil. 

The addition of the guano, which contains all of 
the elements of fertility, and many of them in con- 
siderable quantities, renders the manure of a more 
general character, and enables it to produce very 
large crops of almost any kind, while it assists in 
fortifying the soil in what is usually its weakest 
point — phosphoric acid. 

Prpf Mapes has more recently invented a new 
fertilizer called nitrogenized super-phosphate of lime, 
composed of the improved super-phosphate of lime 
and blood, dried and ground before mixture, in equal 
proportions. This manure, from its highly nitro- 
genous character, theoretically surpasses all others, 
and probably will be found in practice to have great 
value ; its cost will be rather greater than guano. 

We understand its manufacture will shortlv be 
commenced by a company now forming for that 
purpose. 

Explain the i^ses of these different constituents. 
What is nitrogenized phosphate ? 



186 MANURES. 

Many farmers will find it expedient to purchase 
boneSj or bone dust, and manufacture their own 
sujDcr-phosphate of lime ; others will prefer to pur- 
chase the j)repared manure. In doing so, it should 
be obtained of men of known respectability, as ma- 
nures are easily adulterated with worthless matters ; 
and, as their price is so high, that such deception 
may occasion great loss. 

We would not recommend the application of any 
artificial manure, without first obtaining an analysis 
of the soil, and knowing to a certainty that the ma- 
nure is needed ; still, when no analysis has been pro- 
cured, it may be profitable to apply such manures 
as most generally produce good results — such , as 
stable manure, night soil, the improved super- 
phosphate of lime ; or, if this cannot be procured, 
guano. 

NEUTEALS. 
SILICA. 

Silica (or sand) always exists in the soil in sufii- 
cient quantities for the supply of food for plants ; but, 
as has been often stated in the preceding pages, not 
always in the proper condition. This subject has 
been so often explained to the student of this book, 

What should be learned before purchasing amendments for the 
soil 'i 

What do 3^ou know of silica ? % 



MANURES. 18*7 

that it is only necessary to repeat here, that when the 
weakness of the straw or stalk of plants grown on 
any soil indicates an inability in that soil to supply 
the silicates required for strength, not more sand 
should be added, but alkalies, to combine with the 
sand already contained in it, and make soluble sili- 
cates which are available to roots. 

Sand is often necessary to stiff clays, as a me- 
chanical manure, to loosen their texture and render 
them easier of cultivation, and more favorable tp the 
distribution of roots, and to the circulation of air 
and water. 

CHLORINE. 

Cliloriney a necessary constituent of plants, and 
often deficient in the soil (as indicated by analysis), 
may be applied in the form of salt (chloride of 
sodium), or chloride of lime. The former may be 
dissolved in the water used to slake lime, and the 
latter may, with much advantage, be sprinkled around 
stables and other places where fertilizing gases are 
escaping, and, after being saturated with ammonia, 
applied to the soil, thus serving a double purpose. 



OXIDE OF IRON. 

Nearly all soils contain sufficient quantities of 

How may chlorine be applied ? 



188 MANURES. 

oxide of iron, or iron rust, so tliat this substance can 
hardly be required as a manure. 

Some soils, however, contain the ^^ro^oxide of 
iron in such quantities as to be injurious to plants, 
— see page SQ. When this is the case^ it is neces- 
sary to i^low the soil thoroughly, and use such other 
mechanical means as shall render it open to the ad- 
mission of air. The protoxide of iron will then take 
up more oxygen, and become the peroxide — which 
is not only inoffensive, but is absolutely necessary to 
fertility. 

OXIDE OF MANGANESE. 

This can hardly be called an essential constituent 
of plants, and is never taken into consideration in 
manuring lands. 



VARIOUS OTHER MINERAL MANURES. 

LEACHED ASHES. 

Among the mineral manures wdiich have not yet 
been mentioned — not coming strictly under any of 
the preceding heads, is the one known as leached 
ashes. 

These are not without their benefits, though 
worth much less than unleached ashes, which, be- 
How may the protoxide of iron be changed to peroxide ? 



MANURES. 189 

sides tlie constituents of those which have been 
leached, contain much potash, soda, etc. 

Farmers have generally overrated the value of 
leached ashes, because they contain small quanti- 
ties of available phosphate of lime, and soluble sih- 
cates, in which most old soils are deficient. While 
we witness the good results ensuing from their ap- 
plication, we should not forget that the fertilizing 
ingredients of thirty bushels of these ashes may be 
bought in a more convenient form for 'ten or ffteen 
centSy or for less than the cost of spreading the ashes 
on the soil. In many j)arts of Long Island farmers 
pay as much as eight or ten cents per bushel for this 
manure, and thousands of loads of leached ashes are 
taken to this locality from the river counties of New 
York, and even from the State of Maine, and are sold 
for many times their value, producing an effect which 
could be as well and much more cheaply obtained by 
the use of small quantities of super-phosphate of lime 
and potash. 

These ashes often contain a little charcoal (result- 
ing from the imperfect combustion of the wood), 
which acts as an absorbent of ammonia. 

It is sometimes observed that unleachecl ashes, 



Why are leached ashes inferior to those that have not been 
leached ? 

On what do the benefits of leached ashes depend? 

Can these ingredients be more cheaply obtained in another 
form? 

Why do unleached ashes, applied in the spring, sometimes cause 
grain to lodge ? 



190 MANUEES. 

when applied in the spring, cause grain to lodge. 
When this is the case, as it seldom is, it may be in- 
ferred that the j)otash which they contain causes so 
TSiiiid a growth, that the soil is not able to supply 
silicates as fast as they are required by the plants, 
but after the first year, the potash will have imited 
with the silica in the soil, and overcome the diffi- 
culty. 

OLD MORTAR. 

Old morta?' is a valuable manure, because it con- 
tains nitrate of potash and other compounds of nitric 
acid with alkalies. 

These are slowly formed in the mortar by the 
changing of the nitrogen of the hair (in the mortar) 
into nitric acid, and the union of this with the small 
quantities of potash, or with the liuie of the plaster. 
Nitrogen, presented in other forms, as ammonia, for 
instance, may be transformed into nitric acid, by 
uniting with the oxygen of the air, and this nitric 
acid combines "immediately with the alkalies of the 
mortar.''"' 

The lime contained in the mortar may be useful 
in the soil for the many purposes accomplished by 
other lime. 

* See "Working Farmer, vol. 2, p. 2*78. 
What are the most fertilizing ingredients of old mortar ' 



\ 



MANURES. 191 



GAS HOUSE LIME. 

The refuse lime of gas woi^hs, where it can be 
cheaply obtainedj may be advantageously used as a 
manure. It consists, chiefly, of various compounds 
of sulphur and lime. It should be composted with 
earth or refuse matter, so as to expose it to the ac- 
tion of air. It should never be used fresh from 
the gas house. In a few months the sulphur will 
have united with the oxygen of the air, and become 
sulphuric acid, which unites with the lime and makes 
sulphate of lime (plaster), which form it must as- 
sume, before it is of much value. Having been 
used to purify gas made from coal, it contains a 
small quantity of ammonia, which adds to its value. 
It is considered a profitable manure in England, at 
the price there paid for it (forty cents a cartload), 
and, if of good quality, it may be worth double that 
sum, especially for soils deficient in plaster, or for 
such crops as are much benefited by plaster. Its 
price must, of course, be regulated somewhat by the 
price of lime, which constitutes a large proportion 
of its fertilizing parts. The offensive odor of this 
compound renders it a good protection against many 
insects. 

How may gas-house lime be prepared for use ? 
Why should it not be used fresh from the gas house? 
On what do its fertilizing properties depend ? 
What use raay be made of its ofifensive odor ? 



192 MANURES. 

The refuse liquor of gas works contains enougb. 
ammonia to make it a valuable manure. 



SOAPERS' LEY AND BLEACHERS' LEY, 



The refuse ley of soap factories and bleaching estab- 
lishments contains greater or less quantities of solu- 
ble silicates and alkalies (especially soda and potash), 
and is a good p.ddition to the tank of the compost 
heap, or it may be used directly as a liquid applica- 
tion to the soil. The soapers' ley, especially, will be 
found a good manure for lands on which grain lodges. 

Much of the benefit of this manure arises from 
the soluble silicates it contains, while its nitrogenous 
matter,-'' obtained from those parts of the fatty mat- 
ters which cannot be converted into soap, and con- 
sequently remains in tliis solution, forms a valuable 
addition. Heaps of soil saturated with this liquid 
*in autumn, and subjected to the freezings of winter, 
form an admirable manure for spring use. Mr. 
Crane, near Newark (N. J.), has long used a mix- 
ture of spent ley and stable manure, applied in the 
fall to trenches plowed in the soil, and has been most 
successful in obtaining large crops. 

* Glycerine, etc. 

"What use may be made of the refuse ley of soap-makers and 
bleachers ? 

What peculiar qualities does soapers' ley possess ? 



MANURES. 193 



IRRIGATION. 

IiTigation does not come strictly under the head 
of inorganic manures, as it often supplies ammonia 
to the soil. Its chief value, however, in most cases, 
must depend on the amount of mineral matter which 
it furnishes. 

The word "irrigation'' means simply watering. 
In many districts water is in various ways made to 
overflow the land, and is removed when necessary for 
the purposes of cultivation. All river and spring 
water contains some impurities, many of which are 
beneficial to ves^etation. These are derived from the 
earth over, or through which, the water has passed, 
and ammonia absorbed from the atmosphere. When 
water is made to cover the earth, especially if its ra- 
pid motion be arrested, much of this fertilizing mat- 
ter settles, and is deposited on the soil. The water 
which sinks into the soil carries its imjjurities to be 
retained for the uses of plants. When, by the aid 
of under-drains, or in open soils, the water passes 
through the soil, its imjourities are arrested, and be- 
come available in vegetable grow^th. It is, of course, 
impossible to say exactly w^hat kind of mineral mat- 
ter is supplied by water, as that depends on the kind 
of rock or soil from which the impurities are derived ; 

On what does tlie benefit arising from irrigation chiefly depend ? 

What kind of water is best for irrigation? 

How do under-drains increase the benefits of irrigation ? 

9 



194 MANURES. 

but, whatever it may be, it is generally soluble and 
ready for immediate use by plants. 

Water which has run over the surface of the 
earth contains both ammonia and mineral matter, 
while that which has arisen out of the earth, con- 
tains usually only mineral matter. The direct use 
of the water of irrigation as a solvent for the min- 
eral ingredients of the soil, is one of its main bene- 
fits. 

To describe the many modes of irrigation would 
be too long a task for our limited space. It may be 
applied in any way in which it is possible to cover 
the land with water, at stated times. Care is neces- 
sary, however, that it do not wash more fertilizing 
matter from the soil than it deposits on it, as would 
often be the case, if a strong current of water were 
run over it. Brooks may be dammed up, and thus 
made to cover a large quantity of land. In such 
a case the rapid current would be destroyed, and the 
fertilizing matter would settle ; but, if the course 
of the brook were turned, so that it would run in a 
current over any part of the soil, it might carry away 
more than it deposited, and thus prove injurious. 
Small streams turned on to land, from the washing 
of roads, or from elevated springs, are good means 
of irrigation, and produce increased fertility, except 



What is the difference between water which only runs over the 
surface of the earth, and that which runs out of the earth ? 

Why should strong currents of water not be allowed to travei-se 
the soil ? 



MANURES. 195 

where the soil is of such a character as to prevent 
the water from passing away, in which case it should 
be under-drained. 

Irrigation was one of the oldest means of fer- 
tility ever used by man, and still continues in great 
•^avor wherever its effects have been witnessed. 



MIXING SOILS. 

The mixing of soils is often all that is necessary 
to render them fertile, and to improve their meclian- 
iccd condition. For instance, soils deficient in pot- 
ash, or any other constituent, may have that defi- 
ciency supplied, by mixing with them soil containing 
this constituent in excess. 

It is very frequently the case, that such means of 
im2)rovement are easily availed of While these 
chemical effects are being produced, there may be 
an equal improvement in the mechanical character 
of the soil. Thus stiff clay soils are rendered light- 
er, and more easily workable, by an admixture of 
sand, while light blowy sands are compacted, and 
made more retentive of manure, by a dressing of 
clay or of muck. ' 

Of course, this cannot be depended on as a sure 
means of chemical improvement, unless the soils are 
previously analyzed, so as to know their requhe- 

How are soils improved by mixing ? 



196 MANURES. 

ments ; but, in a majority of cases, the soil will be 
benefited, by mixing with it soil of a difi^erent char- 
acter. It is not always necessary to go to other 
locations to procure the soil to be applied, as the 
sub-soil is often very different from the surface soil, 
and simple deep plowing will suffice, in such cases, 
to produce the required admixture, by bringing up the 
earth from below to mingle it with that of a different 
character at the surface. 



In the foregoing remarks on the subject of min- 
eral manures, the writer has endeavored to point out 
such a course as would produce the " greatest good 
to the greatest number," and, consequently, has 
neglected much which might discourage the farmer 
with the idea, that the whole system of scientific 
agriculture is too expensive for his adoption. Still, 
while he has confined his remarks to the more simple 
improvements on the present system of management, 
he would say, briefly, that no ^manuring can he 
strictly economical that is not based on an analysis 
of the soil, and a knowledge of the best means of 
overcoming the deficiencies indicated, together with the 
most scrupulous care of every ounce of evaporating 
or soluble manure. 

Why may the same effect eometimes be produced by deep 
plowing ? 

What IS absolutely necessary to economical manuring ? 



MANURES. 197 



CHAPTEK X. 

ATMOSPHERIC FERTILIZERS. 

It is not common to look on the gases in the atmos- 
phere in the hght of manures, but they are decidedly 
so. Indeed, they are almost the only organic ma- 
nure ever received by the uncultivated parts of the 
earth, as well as a large portion of that which is oc- 
cupied in the production of food for man. 

If these gases were not manures ; if there were 
no means by which they could be used by plants, the 
fertility of the soil would long since have ceased, and 
the earth would now be in an uufertile condition. 
That this must be true, will be proved by a few mo- 
ments' reflection on the facts stated in the first part 
of this book. The fertilizing gases in the atmos- 
phere being composed of the constituents of decayed 
plants and animals, it is as necessary that they should 
be again returned to the form of organized matter, 
as it is that constituents taken from the soU should 
not be put out of existence. 

AMMONIA. 

The ammonia in the atmosphere probably can- 
not be appropriated by the leaves of plants, and 

Are the gases in the atmosphere manures ? 
What would be the result if they -were not so? 



198 MANURES. 

must, therefore, enter the soil to be as similated by 
roots. It reaches the soil in two ways. It is either 
arrested from the air circulating through the soil, or 
it is absorbed by rains in the atmosphere, and thus 
carried to the earth, where it is retained by clay 
and carbon, for the uses of plants. In the soil, 
ammonia is the most important of all organic 
manures. In fact, the value of organic manure 
may be estimated, either by the amount of ammo- 
nia which it will yield, or by its power of absorbing 
ammonia from other sources. 

The most important action of ammonia in the 
soil is the supply of niti^ogen to plants ; but it has 
other offices which are of consequence. It assists in 
some of the chemical changes necessary to prepare 
the matters in the soil for assimilation. Some argue 
that ammonia stimulates the roots of |)lants, and 
causes them to take up increased quantities of inor- 
ganic matter. The discussion of this question would 
be out of place here, and we will simply say, that it 
gives them such vigor that they require increased 
amounts of ashy matter, and enables them to take 
this from the soil. 

Although, in the course of nature, the atmos- 
pheric fertiHzers are plentifully supplied to the soil, 
without the immediate attention of the farmer, it is 

How is ammouia used by plants ? 

How may it be carried to the soil ? 

How may the value of organic manures be estimated? 

What effects has ammonia beside supplying food to plants if 



MANURES. 199 

not beyond his power to manage them in such a 
manner as to arrest a greater quantity. The pre- 
cautions necessary have been repeatedly given in the 
preceding pages, but it may be well to name them 
again in this chapter. 

The condition of the soil is the main point to be 
considered. It must be such as to absorb and retain 
ammonia — to allow v^ater to pass through it, and be 
discharged heloiv the point to which the roots of 
crops are searching for food — and to admit of a free 
circulation of air. 

The power of absorbing and retaining ammonia 
is not possessed by sand, but it is a prominent pro- 
perty of clay, charcoal, and some other matters 
named as absorbents. Tlence, if the soil consists of 
nearly pure sand, it will not make use of the ammo- 
nia brought to it from the atmosphere, but will allow 
it to evaporate immediately after a shower. Soils in 
this condition require additions of absorbent matters, 
to enable them to use the ammonia received from 
the atmosphere. Soils already containing a sufficient 
amount of clay or charcoal, are thus far prejDared to 
receive benefit from this source. 

The next point is to cause the water of rains to 
pass through the soil. If it lies on the surface, or 

To how great a degree can the farmer control atmospheric fer- 
tilizers ? 

"What should be the condition of the soil? 
What substances are good absorbents in the soil? 
How may sandy soils be made retentive of ammonia ? 



200 MANUKES. 

runs off mthout entering the soil, or even if it only- 
enters to a slight depth, and comes in contact with 
but a small quantity of the absorbents, it is not pro- 
bable that the fertilizing matters which it contains 
will all be abstracted. Some of them will undoubt- 
edly return to the atmosphere on the evaporation of 
the water ; but, if the soil contains a sufficient 
supply of absorbents, and will allow all rain water to 
pass through it, the fertilizing gases will all be re- 
tained. They will be filtered (or raked) out of the 
water. 

This subject will be more fully treated in Section 
IV. in connection with under-draining. 

Besides the properties just described, the soil 
must possess the power of admitting a free circulation 
of air. To effect this, it is necessary that the soil 
should be well pulverized to a great depth. If, in 
addition to this, the soil be such as to admit water 
to pass through, it will allow that circulation of air 
necessary to the greatest supply of ammonia. 

CARBONIC ACID. 

Carbonic acid is received from the atmosphere, 
both by the leaves and roots of plants. 

If there is caustic lime in the soil, it unites with 
it, and makes it milder and finer. It is absorbed by 

Why does under-draining increase the absorptive power of the 
Boil? 

How do plants obtain their carbonic acid? 

How does carbonic acid affect caustic lime in the soil ? 



MANURES. 201 

the water in the soil, and gives it the power of dissolv- 
ing many more substances than it wonld do without 
the carbonic acid. This use is one of very great im- 
portance, as it is equivalent to making the min- 
erals themselves more soluble. Water dissolves car- 
bonate of lime, etc., exactly in proportion to the 
amount of carbonic acid which it contains. We 
should, therefore, strive to have as much carbonic 
acid as possible in the v/ater in the soil ; and one 
way, in which to effect this, is to admit to the soil 
the largest possible quantity of atmospheric air which 
contains this gas. 

The condition of soil necessary for this, is the 
same as is required for the deposit of ammonia by 
the same circulation of air. 



OXYGEN. 

Oxygen J though not taken up by plants in its pure 
form, may justly be classed among manures, if we 
consider its effects both chemical and mechanical in 
the soil. 

1. By oxidizing or rusting some of the constit- 
uents of the soil, it prepares them for the uses of 
plants. 

What power does it give to water? 

What condition of the soil is necessary for the reception of the 
largest quantity of carbonic acid ? 

May oxygen be considered a manure ? 

What is the effect of the oxidation of the constituents of the 
soil? 

9* 



202 MANURES. 

2. It unites with the protoxide of iron, and 
changes it to the peroxide. 

3. If there are acids in the soil, which make it 
sour and unfertile, it may be opened to the circula- 
tion of the air, and the oxygen will prepare some of 
the mineral matters contained in the soil to unite 
with the acids and neutralize them. 

4. Oxygen combines with the carbon of organic 
matters in the soil, and causes them to decay. The 
combination produces carbonic acid. 

5. It combines with the nitrogen of decaying sub- 
stances and forms nitric acid, which is serviceable as 
food for plants. 

6. It undoubtedly affects in some way the matter 
which is thrown out from the roots of plants. This, 
if allowed to accumulate, and remain unchanged, is 
often very injurious to plants ; but, probably, the 
oxygen and carbonic acid of the air in the soil change 
it to a form to be inoffensive, or even make it again 
useful to the plant. 

7. It may also improve the mechanical condition 
of the soil, as it causes its particles to crumble, thus 
making it finer ; and it roughens the surfaces of par- 
ticles, making them less easy to move among each 
other. 

How does it aflfect the protoxide of iron ? 

How does it neutralize the acids in the soil ? 

How does it affect its organic parts ? 

How does it form nitric acid ? 

How may it affect excremeniitious matter of plant? ? 

What effect h^s it on the mechanical condition of the soil ? 



MANURES. 203 

These properties of oxygen claim for it a high 
place among the atmospheric fertilizers. 

WATER. 

Water- may be considered an atmospheric ma- 
nure, as its chief supply to vegetation is received 
fVom the air in the form of rain or dew. Its many 
effects are already too well known to need farther 
comment. 

The means of supplying water to the soil by the 
deposit of deio will be fully explained in Section TV. 



• • • 



CHAPTER XI. 

RECAPITULATION. 

Manures have two distinct classes of action in the 
soil, namely, chemical and mechanical. 

Chemical manures are those which enter into the 
construction of plants, or produce such chemical 
effects on matters in the soil as shall prepare them 
for use. 

Mechanical manures are those which improve 



Why may water be considered an atmospheric manure? 
What classes of action have manures ? 
/hat are chemical manures ? Mechanical ? 



204 MANURES. 

the mechanical condition of the soil, such as loosen- 
ing stiff clays, compacting light sands, pulverizing 
large particles, etc. 

Manm-es are of three distinct kinds, namely. Orga- 
nic, mineral, and atmosjjJieric. 

Organic manures comprise all vegetable and ani- 
mal matters (except ashes) which are used to fer- 
tiUzothe soil. Vegetable manures supply carbonic 
acid, and inorganic matter to plants. Animal ma- 
nures supply the same substances and ammonia. 

Mineral manures comprise ashes, salt, phosphate 
of lime, plaster, etc. They supply plants with inor- 
ganic matter. Their usefulness depends on their solu- 
bility. 

Many of the organic and mineral manures have 
the power of absorbing ammonia arising from the de- 
composition of animal manures, as well as that which 
is brought to the soil by rains — these are called ab- 
sorbents. 

Atmospheric manures consist of ammonia, car- 
bonic acid, oxygen and water. Their greatest use- 
fulness requires the soil to allow the water of rains to 
pass through it, to admit of a free circulation of air 
among its particles, and to contain a sufficient 
amount of absorbent matter to aiTest and retain all 
ammonia and carbonic acid presented to it. 



What are the three kinds of manures ? 

What are organic manures, and what are their uses ? Mineral 

Atmospheric ? 



MANURES. 205 

Manures should never be applied to the soil with- 
out regard to its requirements. 

Ammonia and carbon are almost always useful, 
but mineral manures become mere dirt when applied 
to soils not deficient of them. 

The only true guide to the exact requirements of 
the soil is chemical analysis ; and this must always 
be obtained before farming can be carried on with true 
economy. 

Organic manures must be protected against the 
escape of their ammonia and the leaching out of their 
soluble parts. One cord of stable manure properly 
preserved, is worth ten cords which have lost all of 
their ammonia by evaporation, and their soluble parts 
by leaching- — as is the case with much of the manure 
kept exposed in open barn-yards. 

Atmospheric manures cost nothing, and are of 
great value when properly employed. In conse- 
quence of this, the soil which is enabled to make the 
largest appropriation of the atmospheric fertilizers, 
is worth many times as much as that which allows 
them to escape. 

What rule should regulate the application of manures ? 
How must organic manures be managed ? Atmospheric ? 



SECTION FOURTH. 



MECHANICAL CULTIVATION. 



SECTION FOURTH 
MECHANICAL CULTIVATION. 



--•-•-•- 



CHAPTER L * 

THE MECHANICAL CHARACTER OF 

SOILS. 

The mechanical character of the soil is well un- 
derstood from preceding remarks, and the learner 
knows that there are many offices to be performed 
by the soil aside from the feeding of plants. 

1. It admits the roots of plants, and holds them 
in their position. 

2. By a sponge-like action, it holds water for 
the uses of the plant. 

3. It absorbs moisture from the atmosphere to 
supply the demands of plants. 

"What is the first office of the soil ? 

How does it hold water for the uses of the plant? 

How does it obtain a part of its moisture? 



210 CULTIVATION. 

4. It absorbs heat from the sun's rays to assist in 
the process of growth. 

5. It admits air to circulate among roots, and 
supply them with a part of their food, while the 
oxygen of that air renders available the minerals of 
the soil ; and its carbonic acid, being absorbed by the 
water in the soil, gives it the power of dissolving, and 
carrying into roots more inorganic matter than would 
be contained in purer water. 

6. It allows the excrementitious matter thrown 
out by roots to be carried out of their reach. 

All of these actions tlie soil must be capable of 
performing, before it can be in its highest state of 
fertility. There are comparatively few soils now in 
this condition, but there are also few which could not 
be profitably rendered so, by a judicious application 
of the modes of cultivation to be described in the fol- 
lowing chapters. 

The three great objects to be accomplished are : — 

1. To adopt such a system of drainage as will 
cause all of the water of rains to pass tlirough the 
soil, instead of evaporating from the surface. 

2. To pulverize the soil to a considerable depth. 

3. To darken its color, and render it capable of 
absorbing atmospheric fertilizers. 



How may it obtain heat ? 

What is the use of the air circulating among its particles? 

Could most soils be brought to the highest state of fertility? 

What is the first thing to be done ? 

Should its color be darkened ? 



CULTIVATION. 211 

The means used to secure these effects are under- 
draining, subsoil and surface-ploiuing, digging, ap- 
plying much, etc. 



-•-•-•- 



CHAPTEK 11. 

UNDER -DRAINING. 

The advantages of !mc7er-drains over oijen drains are 
very great. 

When open drains are used, much water passes 
into them immediatelv from the surface, and carries 
with it fertilizing parts of the soil, while their beds 
are often compacted by the running water and the 
heat of the sun, so that they become water tight, 
and do not admit water from the lower parts of the 
soil. 

The sides of these drains are often covered with 
weeds, which spread their seeds throughout the whole 
field. Open drains are not only a great obstruction 
to the proper cultivation of the land, but they cause 
much waste of room, as we can rarely plow nearer 
than within six or eight feet of them. 

There are none of these objections to the use of 
under-drains, as these are completely covered, and 

Name some of the means used to secure these effects. 
Why are under-drains superior to open drains? 



212 CULTIVATION. 

do not at all interfere with the cultivation of the 
surface. 

Under drains may be made with brush, stones, 
or tiles. Brush is a very poor material, and its use is 
hardly to be recommended. Small stones are better, 
and if these be placed in the bottoms of the trenches, 
to a depth of eight or ten inches, and covered with 
sods turned upside down, having the earth packed 
well down on to them, they make very good drains. 



TILE DRAINING. 

The best under-drains are those made with tiles, 
or burnt clay pipes. The first form of these used 
was that called the Jiorse-shoe tile, which was in 
two distinct pieces ; this was superseded by a round 
pipe, and we have now what is called the sole tile, 
which is much better than either of the others. 



Fig. 4— Sole Tile. 

This tile is made (like the horse-shoe and j^ipe 
tile) of common brick clay, and is burned the same 
as bricks. It is about one half or three quarters of 
an inch thick, and is so porous that water passes di- 

"With what materials may under-drains be constructed 8 
Describe the tile. 



CULTIVATION. 213 

rectly through it. It has a flat bottom on which 
to stand, and this enables it to retain its po- 
sition, while making the drain, better than would 
be done by the round pipe. The orifice through 
which the water passes is egg-shaped, having its 
smallest curve at the bottom. This shape is the one 
most easily kept clear, as any particles of dirt which 
get into the drain must fall immediately to the point 
where even the smallest stream of water runs, and 
are thus removed. An orifice of about two inches is 
sufiicient for the smaller drains, while the main 
drains require larger tiles. 

These tiles are laid, so that their ends will touch 
each other, on the bottoms of the trenches, and are 
kept in position by having the earth tightly packed 
around them. Care must be taken that no space is 
left between the ends of the tiles, as dirt would be 
liable to get in and choke the drain. It is advisable 
to place a sod — grass side down — over each joint, 
beforg filling the trench, as this more effectually pro- 
tects them against the entrance of dirt. There is 
no danger of keeping the water out by this operation, 
as it will readily pass through any part of the tiles. 

In digging the trenches it is not necessary (except 
in very stony ground) to dig out a place wide enough 
for a man to stand in, as there are tools made ex- 
pressly for the purpose, by which a trench may be 

Why is the sole tile superior to those of previous Gonstruction? 
How are these tiles laid f 
How may the trenches be dug ? 



214 



CULTIVATION. 



/ 



Fig. 5. 



"=0 



^=i? 



dug six or seven inches wide, and to any required 
depth. One set of these implements consists of a 
long narrow spade and a hoe to correspond, such as 
are represented in the accompanying figure. 

With these tools, and a long 
light crowhar, for hard soils, 
trenches may be dug much more 
cheaply than with the common 
spade and pickaxe. Where there 
are large boulders in the soil, these 
drainiug tools may dig under them 
so that they will not have to be 
removed. 

When the trenches are dug to 
a sufficient depth, the bottoms 
L^ must be made perfectly smooth, 
with the required descent (from 
six inches to a few feet in one 
hundred feet). Then the tiles 

Up'T.n "spade a'^ ^'''^J ^^ ^^^^ i^^ SO that their ends 
ti>ol. hoe, will correspond, be packed down, 

and the trenches filled up. Such a drain, if properly 

constructed, may last for ages. Unlike the stone 

drain, it is not liable to be frequented by rats, nor 

choked up by the soil working into it. 

The position of the tile may be best represented 

by a figure, also the mode of constructing stone 

drains. 





CULTIVATION. 



215 




a — Tile drain trench. 
b — Stone drain trench. 
c — Sod laid on the stone. 



It will be seen that the tile 
drain is made with much less 
labor than the stone drain, as it 
requires less digging, while the 
breaking up of the stone for 
the stone drain will be nearly, 
or quite as expensive as the 
tiles. Drains made with large 
stones are not nearly so good as 
with small ones, because they are more liable to be 
choked up by animals working in them.--' 

The depth of the drains must depend on the dis- 
tances at which they are placed. If but tiuenty feet 
apart, they need be but three feet deep ; while, if 
they are eighty feet apart, they must be Jive feet 
deep, to produce the same effect. The reason for 
this is, that the water in the drained soil is not level, 
but is higher midway between the drains, than at 
any other point. It is necessary that this highest 
point should be sufficiently far from the surface not 
to interfere with the roots of plants, consequently, 
as the water line between two drains is curved, the 



* It is probable that a composition of hydraulic cement and 
some soluble material will be invented, by which a continuous 
pipe may be laid in the bottoms of trenches, becoming porous as 
the soluble material is removed bv water. 



Why are small stones better than large stones in the construc- 
tion of drains ? 

On what must the depth of under-drains depend ? 



216 



CULTIVATION. 



most distant drains must be the deepest. This will 
be understood by referring to the follov/ing diagram. 



Fi?. 7. 




aa — 5 feet drains, 80 ft. apart, hb — 3 feet drains, 20 ft. apart. 



The curved line represents the position of the 
water. 

In most soils it will be easier to dig one trench 
five feet deep, than four trenches three feet deep, 
and the deep trenches will be equally beneficial ; but 
where the soil is very hard below a depth of three 
feet, the shallow trenches will be the cheapest, and 
in such soils they will often be better, as the hard 
mass might not allow the water to pass down to en- 
ter the deeper drains. 

By following out these instructions, land may be 
cheaply, thoroughly, and permanently drained. 

Describe the principle which regulates these relative depths 
and distances. (Blackboard.) 

Which is usually the cheaper plan of constructing drains ? 



CULTIVATION. 2l7 



CHAPTER III. 

ADVANTAGES OF UNDER-DRAINING. 

The advantages of under-draining are many and 
important, 

1. It entirely prevents drought. 

2. It furnishes an increased supply of atmos- 
pheric fertilizers. 

3. It warms the lower portions of the soil. 

4. H hastens the decomposition of roots and 
other organic matter. 

5. It accelerates the disintegration of the min- 
eral matters in the soil. 

6. It causes a more even distribution of nutri- 
tious matters among those parts of soil traversed by 
roots. 

7. It improves the mechanical texture of the 
soil. 

8. It causes the poisonous excrementitious mat- 
ter of plants to be carried out of the reach of their 
roots. 

9. It prevents grasses from running out. 

10. It enables us to deepen the surface soil. 
By removing excess of water — 

11. It renders soils earlier in the spring. 

12. It prevents the throwing out of grain in 
winter. 

10 



218 CULTIVATION. 

13. It allows us to work sooner after rains. 

14. It keeps off the effects of cold weather longer 
in the fall. 

15. It prevents the formation of acetic and other 
organic acids, which induce the growth of sorrel and 
similar weeds. 

16. It hastens the decay of vegetahle matter, 
and the finer comminution of the earthy parts of 
the soil. 

17. It prevents, in a great measure, the evapo- 
ration of water, and the consequent abstraction of 
heat from the soil. 

18. It admits fresh quantities of water from 
rains, etc., which are always more or less imbued 
with the fertilizing gases of the atmosphere, to be 
deposited among the absorbent parts of soil, and 
given up to the necessities of plants. 

19. It prevents the formation of so hard a crust 
on the surface of the soil as is customary on heavy 
lands. 



1. Under-draining prevents dr ought, because it 
gives a betler circulation of air in the soil ; (it does so 
by making it more open). There is always the same 
amount of water in and about the surface of the 
earth. In winter, there is more in the soil than in 
summer, while in summer, that which has been dried 

How does under-draining prevent drought ? 



CULTIVATION. 219 

out of the soil exists in the atmosphere in the form 
of a vai^or. It is held in the vapory forai by lieat^ 
which acts as braces to keep it distended. When 
vapor comes in contact with substances sufficiently 
colder than itself, it gives up its heat — thus losing 
its braces — contracts, and becomes liquid w^ater. 

This may be observed in hundreds of common 
operations. 

It is well known that a cold pitcher in summer 
robs the vapor in the atmosphere of its heat, and 
causes it to be deposited on its own surface. It looks 
as though the pitcher were sweating, but the water 
all comes from the atmosphere, not, of course, through 
the sides of the pitcher. 

If we breathe on a knife-blade, it condenses in 
the same manner the moisture of the breath, and 
becomes covered with a film of water. 

Stone houses are damp in summer, because the 
inner surfaces of the walls, being cooler than the 
atmosphere, cause its moisture to be deposited in the 
manner described. By leaving a space, however, 
between the walls and the plaster, this moisture is 
prevented from being troublesome. 

Nearly every night in the summer season, the cold 



Why is there less water in the soil in summer than in winter, 
and where does it exist? 

"VVliat holds it in its vapory form? 

How is it affeoted by cold substances ? 

Describe the deposit of moisture on the outside of a pitcher in 
summer. 

What other instances of the same action can be named? 



220 CULTIVATION. 

earth receives moisture from the atmosphere in the 
form of dew. 

A cabbage, which at night is very cold, con- 
denses water to the amount of a gill or more. 

The same operation takes place in the soil. When 
the air is allowed to circulate among its lower and 
cooler j)articles, they receive moisture from the same 
process of condensation." Therefore, when, by the 
aid of under-drains, the lower soil becomes sufEcient- 
ly open to admit of a circulation of air, the deposit 
of atmospheric moisture will keep the soil supphed 
with water at a point easily accessible to the roots 
of plants. 

If we wish to satisfy ourselves that this is practi- 
cally correct, we have only to prepare two boxes of 
finely pulverized soil, one, five or six inches deep, 
and the other fifteen or twenty inches deep, and 
place them in the sun at mid-day in summer. The 
thinner soil will be completely dried, while the deeper 
one, though it may have been perfectly dry at first, 
will soon accumulate a large amount of water on 
those particles which, being lower and more sheltered 
from the sun's heat than the particles of the thin soil, 
are made cooler. 

With an open condition of subsoil, then, such as 
may be secured by under-draining, we entirely over- 
come drought. 



How does this principle affect the soil? 

Explain the experiment with the two boxes of soil. 



CULTIVATION. 221 

2. Under-draining furnishes an increased supply 
of atmospheric fertilizers J because it secures a change 
of air in the soil. This change is produced whenever 
the soil becomes filled with water, and then dried ; 
when the air above the earth is in rapid motion, and 
^vhen the comparative temperature of the upper and 
lower soils changes. It causes new quantities of the 
ammonia and carbonic acid which it contains .to be 
presented to the absorbent parts of the soil. 

3. Under-draining tuarms the lower parts of the 
soil, because the deposit of moisture (1) is necessarily 
accompanied by an abstraction of heat from the at- 
mospheric vapor, and because heat is withdrawn 
from the whole amount of air circulating through 
the cooler soil. 

When rain falls on the parched surface soil, it 
robs it of a portion of its heat, which is carried down 
to equalize the temperature for the w^hole depth. 
The heat of the rain-water itself is given up to the 
I soil, leaving the water from one to ten degrees cooler, 
when it passes out of the drains, than wlien received 
by the earth. 

There is always a current of air passing from the 
lower to the upper end of a well constructed drain ; 
and this air is always cooler in warm weather, when 
it issues from, than when it enters the drain. Its 
lost heat is imparted to the soil. 

How does under-draining supply to the soil an increased amount 
of atmospheric fertilizers ? 

How does it warm the lower parts of the soil ? 



222 CULTIVATION. 

This heating of the lower soil renders it more 
favorable to vegetation, partially by expanding the 
spongioles at the end of the roots, thus enabling them 
to absorb larger quantities of nutritious matters. 

4. Under-draining hastens the decomposition of 
roots and other organic matters in the soil, by ad- 
mitting increased quantities of air, thus supplying 
oxygen, which is as essential in decay as it is in com- 
bustion. It also allows the resultant gases of decompo- 
sition to pass away, leaving the air around the decay- 
ing substances in a condition to continue the process. 

This organic decay, besides its other benefits, pro- 
duces an amount of heat perfectly perceptible to the 
smaller roots of plants, though not so to us. 

5. Draining accelerates the disintegration of the 
mineral matters in the soil, by admitting water and 
oxygen to keep up the process.. This disintegration is 
necessary to fertility, because the roots of plants can 
feed only on matters dissolved from surfaces ; and 
the more finely we pulverize the soil, the more sur- 
face we expose. For instance, the interior of a stone 
can furnish no food for plants ; while, if it were finely 
crushed, it might make a fertile soil. 

Any thing, tending to open the soil to exj)o&ure, 
facilitates the disintegration of its particles, and 
thereby increases its fertility. 



How does it hasten the decomposition of roots and other organic 
matter in the soil ? 

How does it accelerate the disintegration of its mineral parts? 
Why is this disintegration necessary to fertility ? 



CULTIVATION. 223 

6. Draining causes a more even distribution of nu- 
tritious matters among those parts of soil traversed 
by roots, because it increases the ease with which 
water travels around, descending by its own weight, 
moving sideways by a desire to find its level, or 
carried upward by attraction to supply the evapora- 
tion at the surface. By this continued motion of 
the water, soluble matter of one part of the soil may 
be carried to some other part ; and another constit- 
uent from this latter position may be carried back to 
the former. Thus the food of vegetables is con- 
tinually circulating around among their roots, ready 
for absorption at any point where it is needed, while 
the more open character of the soil enables roots to 
occupy larger portions, making a more even drain on 
the whole, and preventing the undue impoverishment 
of any part. 

6. Under-drains improve the mechanical texture 
of the soil ; because, by the decomposition of its parts, 
as previously described (4 and 5), it is rendered 
of a character to be more easilv worked : while 
suiooth round particles, which have a tendency to 
pack, are roughened by the oxidation of their sur- 
faces, and move less easily amoni; each other. 

8. Drains cause the excrementitious matter of 

TTow (loos undev-fliaiuing equalize the distribution of the fer 
tilizingr parts of the 'soil? 

Why does this distribution lessen the impoverishment of the soil? 

How does under-di-aining improve the mechanical texture of the 
soil? 

How do drains affect the excrementitious matter of plants? 



224 CULTIVATION. 

plants to he carried out of the reach of their roots. 
Nearly all plants return to the soil those parts of 
their food, which are not adapted to their necessities, 
and usually in a form that is poisonous to plants of 
the same kind. In an open soil, this matter may 
be carried by rains to a point where roots cannot 
reach it, and where it may undergo such changes as 
will fit it to be again taken up. 

9. By under-draining, grasses are prevented from 
running out, partly by preventing the accumula- 
tion of the poisonous excrementitious matter, and 
partly because these grasses usually consist oi tillering 
plants. 

These plants continually reproduce themselves in 
sprouts from the upper parts of their roots. These 
sprouts become independent plants, and continue to 
tiller (thus keeping the land supplied with a full 
growth), until the roots of the stools (or clumps of 
tillers), come in contact with an uncongenial part of 
the soil, when the tillering ceases ; the stools be- 
come extinct on the death of their plants, and the 
gi'asses run out. 

The open and healthy, condition of soil produced 
by draining prevents the tillering from being stopped, 
and thus keeps up a full growth of grass until the 
nutriment of the soil is exhausted. 

10. Draining enables us to deepeoi the surface-soil, 
because the admission of air and the decay of roots 

Why do they prevent grasses from running out? 



CULTIVATION. 225 

render the condition of the subsoil . such that it may- 
be brought up and mixed with the surface-soil, with- 
out injuring its quality. 

The second class of advantao-es of under-draininof, 
arising in the removal of the excess of water in the 
soil, are quite as important ^is those just described. 

11. Soils are, thereby, rendered earlier in spring, 
because the water, which rendered them cold, heavy, 
and untillable, is earlier removed, leaving them ear- 
lier in a growling condition. 

12. The throiuing out of grain in winter is pre- 
vented, because the water falling on the earth is 
immediately removed instead of remaining to throw 
up the soil by freezing, as it always does from the 
upright position taken by the particles of ice. 

13. We are enabled to loorh sooner after rains, 
because the water descends, and is immediately re- 
moved instead of lying to be taken off by the slow 
process of evaj)oration, and sinldng through a heavy 
soil. 

14. The effects of eoldioeather are kept off^ longer 
in the fall, because the excess of water is removed, 
which would produce an unfertile condition on the 
first appearance of cold weather. 

The drains also, from causes already named (3), 



How does the removal of water render soils earlier in spring ? 
"Why does it prevent the throwing out of grain in winter ? 
Why does it enable us to work sooner after rains ? 
Why does it keep off the effects of cold weather longer in the 
fall? 

10^ 



226 CULTIVATION. 

kee|) the soil warmer than before beiDg drained, thus 
actually lengthening the season, by makijig the soil 
warm enough for vegetable growth earlier in spring, 
and later in autumn. 

15. Lands o,re prevented from hecoming sour by 
the formation of acetic acid, etc., because these acids 
are produced in the soil only when the decomposition 
of organic matter is arrested by the antiseptic (pre- 
serving) powers of water. If the water is removed, 
the decomposition of the organic matter assumes a 
healthy form, while the acids already produced are 
neutralized by atmospheric influences, and the soil 
is restored from sorrel to a condition in which it is 
fitted for the growth of more valuable plants. 

16. The decay of roots, etc., is allowed to proceed, 
because the preservative influence of too much water 
is removed. Wood, leaves, or other vegetable matter 
kept continually under water, will last for ages ; 
while, if exposed to the action of the weather, as in 
under-drained soils, they soon decay. 

The presence of too much water, by excluding 
the oxygen of the air, prevents the comminution of 
matters necessary to fertility. 

17. The evaporation of lo at errand the consequent 
abstraction of heat from the soil, is in a great measure 
'prevented by draining the water out at the bottom of 

How does it prevent lands from beeomins: sour? 
"Why does it hasten the deca}'' of roots, and the comminution of 
minerjil matters ? 

How does it prevent the abstraction of heat from the soil ? 



CULTIVATION. 227 

the soil, instead of leaving it to be dried off from the 
surface. 

When water assumes the gaseous (or vapory) 
form, it takes up 1723 times as much heat as it con- 
tained while a liquid. A large part of this heat i^ 
derived from surrounding substances. When water 
is sprinkled on the floor, it cools the room ; because, 
as it becomes a vapor, it takes heat from the room. 
The reason why vapor does not feel hotter than liquid 
water is. that, while it contains 1723 times as much 
heat, it is 1723 as large. Hence, a cubic inch of 
vapor, into which we place the bulb of a thermometer, 
contains no more heat than a cubic inch of water. 
The principle is the same in some other cases. A 
sponge containing a table-spoonful of water is just 
as loet as one twice as large and containing two 
spoonsful. 

If a wet cloth be placed on the head, and the 
evaporation of its water assisted by flxnning, the head 
becomes cooler — a portion of its heat being taken to 
sustain the vapory condition of the water. 

The same principle holds true with the soil. 
When the evaporation of water is rapidly going on, 
by the assistance of the sun, wind, etc., a large quan- 
tity of heat is abstracted, and the soil becomes cold. 

How much heat does water take up in becoming vapor? 
Why does water sprinkled on a floor render it cooler ? 
Why is not a cubic inch of vapor warmer than a cubic inch of 
water? 

Why does a wet cloth on the head make it cooler when fanned ? 
How does this principle apply to the soil? 

\ 



228 CULTIVATION. 

When there is no evaporation taking place, except 
of water which has been deposited on the lower por- 
tions of soil, and carried to the surface by caj^illary 
attraction (as is nearly true on under-drained soils), 
the loss of heat is compensated by that taken from 
the moisture in the atmosphere by the soil, in the 
above-named manner. 

This cooling of the soil by the evaporation of 
water, is of very great injury to its powers of pro- 
ducing crops, and the fact that under-drains avoid it, 
is one of the best arguments in favor of their use. 
Some idea may, perhaps, be formed of the araount 
of heat taken from the soil in this way, from the 
fact that, in midsummer, 25 hogsheads of water may 
be evaporated from a single acre in twelve hours. 

18. When not saturated with water the soil ad- 
mits the water of rains, etc., which bring with them 
fertilizing gases from the cdmosphere, to be deposited 
among the absorbent parts of soil, and given up to 
the necessities of the plant. When this rain falls 
on lands akeady saturated, it cannot enter the soil, 
but must run off from the surface, or be removed by 
evaporation, either of which is injurious. The first, 
because fertihzing matter is washed away. The se- 
cond, because the soil is deprived of necessary heat. 

19. T lie formation of crust on the surface of the 
soil is due to the evaporation of water, which is 

When rains are allowed to enter the soil, how do they benefit it I 
How do under-drains prevent the formation of a crust on the 
surface of a soil ? 



CULTIVATION. 229 

drawn up from below by capillary attraction. It 
arises from the fact that the water in the soil is sat- 
urated with mineral substances, which it leaves at 
its point of evaporation at the surface. This soluble 
matter from below, often forms a very hard crust, 
which is a complete shield to prevent the admission 
of air with its ameliorating effects, and should, as 
far as possible, be avoided. Under-draining is the 
best means of doing this, as it is the best means of 
lessening the evaporation. 

The foregoing are some of the more important 
reasons why under-draining is always beneficial. 
Thorough experiments have amply proved the truth 
of the theoiy. 

The hinds of soil benefited hy under- draining are 
nearly as unlimited as the kinds of soil in existence. 
It is a common opinion, among farmers, that the only 
soils which require draining are those which are at 
times covered with water, such as swamps and other 
low lands ; but the facts stated in the early part of 
this chapter, show us that every kind of soil — wet, 
diy, compact, or light — receives benefit from the 
treatment. The fact that land is too dry^ is as 
much a reason why it should be drained, as that it 
is too ivet, as it overcomes drought as effectually as it 
removes the injurious effects of too much water. 

All soils in which the water of heavy rains does 
not immediately pass down to a depth of at least 

What kinds of soil are benefited by under-draining? 



230 CULTIVATION. 

tliirty inches, should be under-draiued, and the ope- 
ration, if carried on with judgment, would invariably 
result in profit. 

Of the precise profits of under-draining this is 
not the place to speak : many of the agricultural 
papers contain numerous accounts of its success. It 
may be well to remark here, that manj^ English far- 
mers give it, as their experience, that under-drains 
pay for themselves every three years, or that they 
produce a perpetual profit of 33-y- per cent., or their 
original cost. This is not the o]union of theorists 
and hook fanners. It is the conviction of practical 
men, who know, from experience, that under-drains 
are beneficial. 

The best evidence of the utility of under-drain- 
ing is the position, with regard to it, which has been 
taken by the English national government, which 
affords much protection to the agricultural interests 
of her people — a protection which in this country is 
unwisely and unjustly withheld. 

In England a very large sum from the public 
treasury has been appropriated as a fund for loans, 
on under-drains, which is lent to farmers for the pur- 
pose of under-draining their estates, the only secu- 
rity given being the increased value of the soil. The 
time allowed for payments is twenty years, and only 
^YQ per cent, interest is charged. By the influence 

"What do Ena;lish farmers name as the profits of under-draining? 
What stand has been taken by the Rnglish government with 
regard to under-draining? 



CULTIVATION. 231 

of this patronage, the actual wealth of the kingdom 
* is being rapidly increased, while the farmers them- 
selves, can raise their farms to any desired state of 
fertility, without immediate investment. 

The best proof that the government has not 
acted injudiciously in this matter is, that private 
capitalists are fast employing their money in the 
same manner, and loans on under-drains are con- 
sidered a very safe investment. 

There is no doubt that we may soon have similar 
facilities for improving our farms, and when we do, 
we shall find that it is unnecessary to move West to 
find good soil. The districts ' nearer market, where 
the expense of transportation is much less, may, by 
the aid of under-drains, and a judicious system of 
cultivation, be made equally fertile. ^ 

One very important, though not strictly agricul- 
tural, effect of thorough drainage is its removal of 
certain local diseases, peculiar to the vicinity of 
marshy or low moist soils. The health-reports in 
several places in England, show that where /ever and 
ague was once common, it has almost entirely dis- 
appeared since the general use of under-drains in 
those localities. 



Ho-w does under- draining affect the healthfulnesa of marshy 
countries ? 

Describe the sub-soil plow. 



232 



CULTIVATION. 



CHAPTER IV. 



SUB-SOIL PLOWING. 



The suh-soil ploio is an implement differing in figure 
from the surface plow. It does not turn a furrow, 
but merely runs through the sub-soil like a mole — 
loosening and making it finer by lifting, but allowing 
it to fall back and occupy its former place. It 
usually follows the surface plow, entering the soil to 
the depth of from twelve to eighteen inches below 
the bottom of the surface furrow. 

The best pattern now made (the Mapes plow) is 
represented in the following figure. 

Fig. 8. 



" d)f 




The Mapes plow and its mode of action, a — Shape of the foot of 
the plow, h — Its effect on the soil. 



CULTIVATION. 233 

The sub-soil plows first made raised the whole soil 
about eight inches, and required very great power in 
their use often six, eight, or even ten oxen. The 
Mapes plow, raising the soil but slightly, may be 
worked with much less power, and produces equally 
good results. It may be run to its full depth in most 
soils by a single yoke of oxen. 

Of course a motion in the soil of but one and a half 
inches is very slight, but it is sufficient to move each 
particle from the one next to it which, in dry soils, is 
all that is necessary. Whoever has examined a pile 
of cannon-balls must have observed that at the points 
where they touch each other, there is a little rust. In 
the soil, the same is often the case. Where the par- 
ticles touch each other, there is such a chemical change 
produced as renders them fit for the use of plants. 
While these particles remaiix in their first position, 
the changed portions are out of the reach of roots ; 
but, if, by the aid of the sub-soil plow, their position 
is altered, these parts are exposed for the uses of 
plants. If we hold in the hand a ball of dry clay, 
and press it hard enough to produce the least motion 
among its particles, the whole mass becomes pul- 
verized. On the same principle, the sub-soil plow 
renders the compact lower soil sufficiently fine for the 
requirements of fertility. 



Describe the Mapes plow. 

Why is the motion in the soil of one and a half inches sufficient? 
How does the oxydation of the particles of the soil resemble the 
rusting of cannon balls in a pile ? 



234 CULTIVATION. 

Notwithstanding its great benefits on land, which 
is sufficiently dry, sub-soiling cannot be recommended 
for wet lands ; for, in such case, the rains of a single 
season would often be sufficient to entirely overcome 
its effects by packing the subsoil down to its former 
hardness. 

On lands not overcharged with water, it is 
productive of the best results, it being often suf- 
ficient to turn the balance between a gaining and 
a losing business in farming. 

It increases nearly every effect of under-draining ; 
especially does it overcome drought, by loosening the 
soil, and admitting air to circulate among the particles 
of the sub-soil and deposit its moisture on the prin- 
ciple desci'ibed in the chapter on under-draining. 

It deepens the surface-soil, because it admits roots 
into the sub-soil where they decay and leave carbon, 
while the circulation of air so affects the mineral 
parts, that they become of a fertilizing character. 
The deposit of carbon gives to the subsoil the power 
of absorbing, and retaining the atmospheric fertilizers, 
which are more freely presented, owing to the fact 
that the air is allowed to circulate with greater 
freedom. As a majority of roots decay in the surface- 
soil, they there deposit much mineral matter obtain- 
ed from the sub- soil. 

The retention of atmospheric manures is more 

Why are the benefits of sub-soiling not permanent on wetlands? 
Does sub-soiling overcome drought ? 
How does it deepen the surface soil ? 



CULTIVATION. 235 

fully ensured by the better exposure of the clayey 
portions of the soil. 

Those manures which are artificially applied, by 
being plowed under to greater depths, are less liable 
to evaporation, as, from the greater amount of soil 
above them, their escape will more probably be 
arrested ; and, from the greater prevalence of roots, 
they are more liable to be taken up bv plants. 

The sub-soil often contains matters which are de- 
ficient in the surface-soil. By the use of the sub-soil 
plow, they are rendered available. 

^ Sub-soiling is similar to under-draining in con- 
tinuing the tillering of grasses, and in getting rid of 
the poisonous excrementitious matter of plants. 

When the sub-soil is a thin layer of clay on a 
sandy bed (as in some plants of Cumberland Co. 
Maine), the sub-soil plow, by passing through it, 
opens a passage for w^ater, and often affords a suf- 
ficient drainage. 

If plants will grow better on a soil six inches 
deep than on one of three inches, there is no reason 
why they should not be benefited in proportion, by 
disturbing the soil to the whole depth to which roots 
wall travel — which is usually more than two feet. 

Why is the retention of atmospheric manures ensui-ed by sub- 
soiling? 

Wliy are organic manures ploAved deeply under the soil, less 
liable to evaporation than when deposited near the surface? 

How does sub-soiling resemble under-draining in relati(j;i to the 
tillering of grasses? 

When the sub-soil consists of a thin layer of clay on a sandy bed, 
what use may be made of the sub-soil plow ? 



236 , CULTIVATION. 

The minute rootlets of com and most other plants, 
willj if allowed by cultivation, occupy the soil to the 
depth or thirty-four inches, having a fibre in nearly 
every cubic inch of the soil for the whole distance. 
There are very few cultivated plants whose roots 
would not travel to a depth of thirty inches or more. 
Even the onion sends its roots to the depth of 
eio'hteen inches when the soil is well cultivated. 

The object of loosening the soil is to admit 
roots to a sufficient depth to hold the plant in its 
position — to obtain the nutriment necessary to its 
growth — to receive moisture from the lower portions 
of the soil — and, if it be a bulb, tuber, or tap, to 
assume the form requisite for its largest develop- 
ment. 

It must be evident that roots, penetrating the 
soil to a depth of two feet, anchor the plant with 
greater stability than those which are spread more 
thinlv near the surface. 

The roots of plants traversing the soil to such 
great distances, and being located in nearly every 
part, absorb mineral and other food, in solution in 
water, only through the spongioles at their ends. 
Consequently, by having these ends in every part 
of the soil, it is all brought under contribution, and 



To how great a depth will the roots of plants usually occupy 
the soil? 

What is the object of loosening the soil ? 

How are these varioiis effects better produced in deep than in 
shallow soils ? 



CULTIVATION. 237 

the amount supplied is greater, while the demand on 
any particular part may be less than when the whole 
requirements of plants have to be supplied from a 
depth of a few inches. 

The ability of roots, to assume a natural shape 
in the soil, and grow to their largest sizes, must 
depend on the condition of the soil. If it is finely 
pulverized to the whole depth to which they ought 
to go, they will be fully developed ; while, if the soil 
be too hard for penetration, they will be deformed 
or small. Thus a carrot may grow to the length of 
two and a half feet, and be of perfect shape, while, if 
it meet in its course at a depth of eight or ten inches 
a cold, hard sub-soil, its growth must be arrested, or 
its form injured. 

Roots are turned aside by a hard sub-soil, as 
they would be if received by the surface of a plate of 
glass. 

Add to this the fact that cold, impenetrable sub- 
soils are chemically uncongenial to vegetation, and 
we have sufficient evidence of the importance, and 
in many cases the absolute necessity of sub-soiling 
and under-drainino^. 

It is imnecessary to urge the fact that a garden soil 
of two feet is more productive than a field soil of six 
inches ; and it is certain that proper attention to 
these two modes of cultivation will in a majority of 
cases make a garden of the field — more than doubling 

May garden soils be profitably imitated in field culture ? 



238 CULTIVATION. 

its value in ease of working, increased produce, cer- 
tain security against drought, and more even distri- 
bution of the demands on the soil — while the outlay 
will be immediately repaid by an increase of crops. 

The sub-soil will be much improved in its charac- 
ter the first year, and a continual advancement 
renders it in time equal to the original surface-soil, 
and extending to a depth of two feet or more. 

The sub-soil plow is coming rapidly into use. 
There are now in New Jersey more foundries casting 
sub-soil plows than there were sub-soil plows in the 
State six years ago. The implement has there, as 
well as in many other places, ceased to be a curiosity ; 
and the man who now objects to its use, is classed 
with him who shells his corn on a shovel over a half- 
bushel, instead of employing an improved machine, 
which will enable him to do more in a day than he 
can do in the '^ good old way " in a week. 

Had we space, we might give many instances of 
the success of sub-soiling, but the agricultural j^apers 
of the present day (at least one of which every farmer 
should take) have so repeatedly published its advan- 
tages, that we will not do so. 

In no case will its use be found any thing but 
satisfactory, except in occasional instances where 
there is some chemical difficulty in the sub-soil, which 
an analysis will tell us how to overcome. 

Is the use of the sub-soil plow increasing ? 
Will its use ever injure orops ? 



CULTIVATION. 239 

As was before stated, its use on wet lands is not 
advisable until they have been under-drained, as 
excess of water prevents its effects from being per- 
manent. 



• ♦ ♦ 



CHAPTER Y. 

PLOWING AND OTHER MODES OF PUL- 
VERIZING THE SOIL. 

The advantages of pulverizing the soil, and the rea- 
sons why it is necessary, are now too well known to 
need remark. Few farmers, when they plow, dig, or 
harrowj are enabled to give substantial reasons for 
so doing. If they will reflect on what has been said 
in the previous chapters, concerning the supply of 
mineral food to the plant by the soil, and the effect 
of air and moisture about roots, they will find more 
satisfaction in their labor than it can afford when 
applied without thought. 

PLOWING. 

The kind of plow used in cultivating the surface- 



Mav the satisfaction attendiug lal'or be increased by an under- 
standing of the natural laws which regulate our operations? 
On what depends the kind of plow to be used ? 



240 CULTIVATION. 

soil must be decided by the kind of soil. This ques- 
tion the practical, ohserving farmer will be able to 
solve. 

As a general rule, it may be stated that the plow 
which runs the deepest^ with the same amount of 
force, is the best. 

We might enter more fully into this matter but 
for want of space. 

The advantages of deep ploiving cannot be too 
strongly urged. 

The statement that the deeper and i\\Q finer the 
soil is rendered, the more productive it will become, 
is in every respect true, and which no single instance 
will contradict. 

It must not be inferred from this, that we would 
advise a farmer, who has always plowed his soil to 
the depth of only six inches, to double the depth at 
once. Such a practice in some soils would be highly 
injurious, as it would completely bury the more fer- 
tile and better cultivated soil, and bring to the top 
one which contains no organic matter, and has ne- 
ver been subject to atmospheric influences. This 
would, perhaps, be so little fitted for vegetation that 
it would scarcely sustain plants until their roots could 
reach the more fertile parts below. Such treatment 
of the soil (turning it upside down) is excellent in 
garden culture, where the great amount of manures 

What is a general rule with regard to this ? 

Should deep plowing be immediately adopted ? Why ? 

Why is this course of treatment advisable for garden culture ? 



CULTIVATION. 241 

applied is sufficient to overcome the temporary bar- 
renness of the soil, but it is not to be recommended 
for all Jield cultivation, where much less manure is 
employed. 

The course to be pursued in such cases is to 2>^cw 
one inch deeper each year. By this means the soil 
may be gradually deepened to any desired extent. 
The amount of uncongenial soil which will thus be 
brought up, is slight, and will not interfere at all with 
the fertility of the soil, while the elevated portion 
will become, in one year, so altered by exposure, 
that it will equal the rest of the soil in fertility. 

Often where lime has been used in excess, it has 
sunk to the sub-soil, where it remains inactive. The 
slight deepening of the surface plowing would mix 
this lime with the surface-soil, and render it again 
useful. 

When the soil is light and sandy, resting on a 
heavy clay sub-soil, or clay on sand, the bringing 
up of the mass from below will improve the texture 
of the soil. 

As an instance of the success of deep plowing, we 
call to mind the case of a farmer in New Jersey, 
who had a field which had vielded about twentv-five 
bushels of corn per acre. It had been cultivated at 
ordinary depths. After laying it out in eight step 
lands (24 feet), he plowed it at all depths from five 



How should field plovv'ing be conducted? _ 

How does such treatment affect soils previously limed ? 

Hpw may it sometimes improve sandy or clay soils? 

U 



242 CULTIVATION. 

to ten inches, on the different lands, and sowed oats 
evenly over the whole field. The cro}) on the five 
inch soil was veiy poor, on the six inch rather better, 
on the seven inch better still, and on the ten inch 
soil it was as fine as ever grew in l!^ ew Jersey ; 
it had stiff straw and broad leaves, while the grain 
was also much better than on the remainder of 
the field. 

There is an old anecdote of a man who died, 
leaving his sons with the information that he had 
buried a pot of gold for them, somew^here on the 
farm. They commenced digging for the gold, and 
dug over the whole farm to a great depth without 
finding the gold. The digging, however, so enriched 
the soil that they were fully compensated for their 
disappointment, and became wealthy from the in- 
creased produce of their farm. 

Farmers will find, on experiment, that they have 
gold buried in their soil, if they will but dig deep 
enough to obtain it. The law gives a man the own- 
ership of the soil for an indefinite distance from the 
surface, but few seem to realize that there is another 
farm below the one they are cultivating, which is 
quite as valuable as the one on the surface, if it were 
but properly worked. 

Fall plowing, especially for heavy lands, is a very 
good means of securing the action of the frosts of 
winter to pulverize the soil. If it be a stiff clay, it 



What kind of soils ar« benefited by fall plowing ? 



CULTIVATION. 243 

may be well to throw the soil up into ridges (by- 
ridging and back furrowing), so as to expose the 
largest possible amount of surface to the freezing 
and thawing of \vinter. Sandy soils should not be 
plowed in the fall, as it renders them too light. 



DIGGING MACHINES. 

A recent invention has been made in England, 
known as the digging machine or rotary spade, which 
— although from having too much gearing between 
the power and the part performing the labor, it is not 
adapted to general use — has given such promise of 
future success, that Mr. Mechi (an agricultural writer 
of the highest standing) has said that ^" the plow is 
doomed." This can hardly be true, for the varied 
uses to which it may be applied, will guarantee its 
continuance in the favor of the farmer. 

Already, in this country, Messrs. Gibbs & Mapes, 
have invented a digging machine of very simple con- 
struction, which seems calculated to serve an excel- 
lent purpose, even in the hands of the farmer of lim- 
ited means. 

Its friends assert that, with one pair of oxen, it 
will dig perfectly three feet wide, and for a depth of 
fifteen inches. An experiment with an unperfected 
machine, in the presence of the writer, seemed to 
justify their hopes. 

What is the digging rnacliine ? 



244 CULTIVATION. 

This machine thoroughly pulverizes the soil to a 
considerable depth, and for smooth land must prove 
far superior to the plow. 

THE HARROW AND CULTIVATOR. 

The hajTOiu, an implement largely used in all 
parts of the world, to pulverize the soil, and break 
clods, has become so firmlj^ rooted in the affections 
of farmers, that it must be a very long time before 
they can be convinced that it is not the best imple- 
ment for the use to which it is devoted. It is true 
that it pulverizes the soil for a depth of two or three 
inches, and thus much improves its appearance, bene- 
fiting it, without doubt, for the earliest stages of the 
growth of plants. Its action, however, is very defec- 
tive, because, from the luedge shape of its teeth, it 
continually acts to pack the soil ; thus — although fa- 
vorable for the germination of the seed — it is not cal- 
culated to benefit the plant during the later stages of 
its growth, when the roots require the soil to be pul- 
verized to a considerable depth. 

The cultivator may be considered an improved 
liarroio. The principal difference between them 
being, that while the teeth of the harrow are pointed 
at the lower end, those of the cultivator are shaped 
like a small double plow, being large at the bottom 

Why is the harro-w a defective implement? 
Why is the cultivator superior to the harrow ? 



CULTIVATION. 245 

and growing smaller towards the top. They lift the 
earth up, instead of ^Dressing it downwards, thus loos- 
ening instead of compacting the soil. 

Many styles of cultivators are now sold at agri- 
cultural warehouses, A very good one, for field use, 
may be made by substituting the cultivator teeth for 
the spikes in an old harrow frame. 



-• ♦ • 



CHAPTER VI. 

ROLLING, MULCHING, WEEDING, ETC. 

ROLLING. 

RoUing the soil with a large roller, arranged to be 
drawn by a team, is in many instances a good ac- 
cessory to cultivation. By its means, the following- 
results are obtained : — 

1. The soil at the surface is pulverized without 
the compacting of the lower parts, the area of con- 
tact being large. 

2. The stones on the land are pressed down so as 
to be out of the way of the scythe in mowing. 

3. The soil is com[)acted around seeds after sow- 
ing in such a manner as to exclude hght and to touch 
them in every part, both of which are essential 



Name some of the benefits of rolling ? 



246 CULTIVATION. 

to their germination and to the healthfulness of the 
plants. 

4. The soil is so compacted at the surface, that 
it is less frequented by grubs, etc., than when it is 
more loose. 

5. When the soil is smoothed in this manner, 
there is less surface exposed for the evaporation of 
water with its pooling effect. 

6. Light sandy lands, by being rolled in the fall, 
are rendered more compact, and the loosening effects 
of frequent freezing and thawing are avoided. 

Although productive of these various effects, roll- 
ing should be adopted only with much care, and 
should never be applied to very heavy lands, except 
in dry weather when lumpy after plowing, as its 
tendency in such cases would be to render them still 
more difficult of cultivation. Soils in which air does 
not circulate freely, are not improved by rolling, as 
it presses the surface-particles still more closel}' 
together, and prevents the free admission of the at- 
mosphere. 

If well under-drained, a large majority of soils 
would doubtless be benefited by a judicious use of the 
roller.'' 

* Field rollers should be made in sections, for e<ase of turning. 
Under what circumstances should the roller be used ? 



CULTIVATION. 247 



MULCHING. 

Mulching (called Guriieyism in England) consists 
in covering the soil. with salt hay, litter, seaweed, 
leaves, spent tanbark, chijDS, or other refuse matter. 

Every farmer must have noticed that, if a board 
or rail, or an old brush-heap be removed in spring 
from soil where grass is growing, the grass afterwards 
grov.'s in those places much larger and better than 
in other parts of the field. 

This improvement arises from various causes. 

1. The evaporation of water from the soil is pre- 
vented during drought by the shade afforded by the 
mulch ; and it is therefore kept in better condition, 
as to moisture and temperature, than when evapora- 
tion goes on more freeh". This condition is well cal- 
culated to advance the chemical chancres necessarv to 
prepare the matters — both organic and mineral — 
in the soil for the use of plants. 

2. By preventing evaporation, we partially pro- 
tect the soil from losing ammonia resultant from 
decaying organic matter. 

3. A heavv mulch breaks the force of rains, and 
prevents them from compacting the soil, as would be 
the result, were no such precaution taken. 

4. Mulching protects the surface-soil from freez- 
ing as readily as when exposed, and thus keeps it 



What is mnlchinsr? 

What are some of its benefits? 



248 CULTIVATION. 

longer open for the admission of air and moisture. 
When unprotected^ the soil early becomes frozen ; 
and all water falling, instead of entering as it should 
do, passes off on the surface. 

5. The throwing out of winter grain is often pre- 
vented, because this is due to the freezing of the 
surface-soil. 

6. Mulching prevents the growth of some weeds, 
because it removes from them the fosterins: heat of 
the sun. 

Many of the best nursery-men keep the soil about 
the roots of young trees mulched continually. One 
of the chief arguments for this treatment is, that it 
prevents the removal of the moisture from the soil 
and the consequent loss of heat. Also that it keerps 
up a full SQj^ply of water for the uses of the roots, be- 
cause it keeps the soil cool, and causes a deposit of dew. 

7. It also prevents the '' baking" of the soil, or the 
formation of a crust. 

It is to be recommended in nearly all caseg, to sow 
oats ver}^ thinly over land intended for winter fallow 
after the removal of crops, as they will grow a little 
before being killed by the frost, vfhen they will fall 
down, thus afibrding a very beneficial mulch to the soil. 

When farmers spread manure on their field sin the 
fall to be plowed under in the spring, they benefit 

Why does mulching take the place of artificial -watering? 
"Why is the late sowing of oats beneficial ? 
From what arises the chief benefit of top dressing the soil with 
manure in axilnmn? 



CULTIVATION. 249 

the land by the mulching more than by the addition 
of fertilizing matter, because they give it the pro- 
tecting influence of the straw, etc., while they lose 
much of the ammonia of their manure by evapora- 
tion. The same mulching might be more cheaply 
done with leaves, or other refuse matter, and the 
ammonia of the manure made available by compost- 
ing with absorbents. 

It is an old and true saying that " snow is the 
poor man's manure." The reason why it is so bene- 
ficial is, chiefly, that it acts as a most excellent 
mulch. It contains no more ammonia than rain- 
water does ; and, were it not for the fact that it 
protects the soil against loss of heat, and produces 
other benefits of mulching, it would have no more 
advantageous eflect. The severity of winters at the 
North is partially compensated by the long duration 
of snow. 

It is a well known fact that when there is but 
little snow in cold countries, wheat is very hable to 
be winter hilled. The same protection is afibrded by 
artificial mulching. 

This treatment is peculiarly applicable to the 
cultivation of flowers, both in pots and in beds out 
of doors. It is almost indispensable to the profitable 
production of strawberries, and many other garden 
crops, such as asparagus, rhubarb, etc. Many say 
that the best treatment for trees is to put stones 

Why is snow particularly beneficial? 
11* 



250 CULTIVATION. 

about tlieir roots. This is simply mulching them, 
and might be done more cheaply by the use of leaves, 
copying the action of nature in forests ; '-'^ for, unless 
these stones be removed in spring, they will sink and 
comj^act the soil in part during open weather. 



WEEDING. 

If a farmer were asked — ^what is the use of weeds ? 
he might make out quite a list of their benefits, 
among which might be some of the following : — 

1. They shade tender plants, and in a measure 
serve as a mulch to the ground. 

2. Some weeds, by their offensive odor, drive 
away many insects. 

3. They may serve as a green crop to be plowed 
into the soil, and increase its organic matter. 

4. They make us stir the soil, and thus increase 
its fertility. 

Still, while thinking out these excuses for weeds, 
he would see other and more urgent reasons why they 
should not be allow^ed to grow. 

1. They occupy the soil to the disadvantage of 
crops, 

■^ The beneficial effects of mulching is so great as to lead us to 
the conclusion that it has other means of action than those men- 
tioned in this book. Future experiments may lead to more know- 
ledge on this subject. 

What are some of the uses of weeds ? Their disadvantages ? 



CULTIVATION. 251 

2. They exclude light and heat from cultivated 
plants, and thus interfere with their growth. 

3. They take up mineral and other matters from 
the soil, and hold them during the growing season, 
thus depriving crops of their use. 

It is not necessary to argue the injury done by 
weeds. Every farmer is well convinced that they 
should be destroyed, and the best means of accom- 
plishing this are of the greatest importance. 

In the first place, we should protect ourselves 
against their increase. This may be done : — 

By decomposing all manures in compost, whereby 
the seeds contained will be killed by the heat of 
fermentation ; or, if one bushel of salt be mixed 
through each cord of compost (as before recommend- 
ed), it will kill seeds as well as grubs, — 

By hoeing, or, otherwise, destroying grov^ing 
weeds before they mtiture their seeds, and 

By keeping the soil in the best chemical condition. 

This last point is one of much importance. It 
is well known that soils deficient in potash, will 
naturally produce one kind of plants, while soils 
deficient in phosphoric acid will produce plants 
of another species, etc. Many soils produce certain 
weeds which would not grow on them if they were 
made chemically perfect, as indicated by analysis. It is 
also believed tbat those weeds, which naturally grow on 



How mav we protect ourselves ngainst their increase ? _ 
Why is it especially important for this pxu-pose to maintain the 



balance of the soil ? 



252 CULTIVATION. 

the most fertile soils, are the ones most easily des- 
troyed. There are exceptions (of which the Thistle 
is one), but this is given as a general rule. 

By careful attention to the foregoing points, 
weeds may be kept from increasing while those 
already in the soil may be eradicated in various 
ways, chiefly by mechanical means, such as hoeing, 
plowing, etc.* 

Prof. Mapes says that six bushels of salt annually 
sown broadcast over each acre of land, will destroy 
very many weeds as well as grubs and worms. 

The common hoe is a very imperfect tool for the 
purpose of removing weeds, as it prepares a better 
soil for, and replants in a position to grow, nearly as 
many weeds as it destroys. 

The scuffle-Jioe (or push-hoe) is much more effec- 
tive, as, when worked by a man walking backwards, 
and retiring as he works, it leaves nearly all of the 
weeds on the surface of the soil to be killed by the 
sun. When used in this way, the earth is not 

* It is possible that the excrementitious matter thrown out by 
some plants may be sufficiently destructive to other kinds to ex- 
terminate them from the soil — thus, farmers in Maine say that a 
single crop of turnips will entirely rid the soil of idtch grass. This 
is, undoubtedly, the effect of the excrementitious matter of the 
turnips. This subject is one of practical importance, and demands 
close investigation by farmers, which may lead to its being re- 
duced to a system. 



How much salt may be used with advantage ? 
Why is the scuffle-hoe superior to the common hoe ? 



cuLTiVA'noN. 253 

trodden on after being hoed — as is the case when 
the common hoe is employed. This treading, besides 
compacting the soil, covers the roots of many weeds, 
and causes them to grow again. 

Much of the labor of weeding usually performed 
by men, might be more cheaply done by horses. 
There are various implements for this pm-pose, some 
of which are coming, in many parts of the country, 
into very general use. 

One of the best of these is the Langdon Horse 
Hoe, which is a shovel-shaped plow, to be run one 
or two inches deep. It has a wing on each side to 
prevent the earth from falling on to the plants in the 
rows. At the rear, or upper edge, is a kind of rake 
or comb, which allows the earth to pass through, 
while the weeds pass over the comb and fall on the 
surface of the soil, to be killed by the heat of the 
sun. It is a simple and cheap tool, and will perform 
the work of twenty men with hoes. The hand hoe 
will be necessary only in the rows. 

CULTIVATOR. 

The cultivator, which was described in the pre- 
ceding chapter, and of which there are various pat- 
terns in use, is excellent for weeding, and for loosen- 
ing the soil between the rows of corn, etc. The 

How may much labor be saved in removing weeds ? 
What is the Langdon horse-hoe ? 
Describe the universal cultivator ? 



254 



CULTIVATION. 



one called the aniversal cultivator, having its side 
bars made of iK»n, curved so that at whatever dis- 
tance it is placed the teeth will point straight for- 
ward, is a much better tool than those of the older 
patterns, which had the teeth so arranged that when 
set for wide rows, they pointed towards the clevis. 
It is difficult to keep such a cultivator in its place, 
while the " universal " is as difficult to move out of 
a straight line. 

IMPROVED HORSE-HOE. 



The improved liorse-lioe is a combination of the 
" Langdon'' horse hoe and the cultivator, and is the 
best implement, for many purposes, that has yet 
been made.-^-" 




Y\-i. v.. , 

*The improved horse-hoe is made and sold by Haggles, Nourse 
& Mason, of Worcester, Mass., and Quincy Hall, Boston. 

What is the improved hoi'se-hoe ? 



CULTIVATION. 255 



HARVESTING MACHINES. 

Until within a compamtively short period, but 
httle attention has been paid to the production of 
machines for harvesting the various crops. 

During the past few years, however, many valu- 
able inventions have appeared. Among these we 
notice Ketchum's mower, Hussey's mower and reaper, 
and Wagener's grain and grass seed harvester. The 
latter machine gathers only the grain and seeds of 
the crop, leaving the straw to be plowed under the 
soil, thus maintaining its supply of soluble silicates, 
and increasing its amount of organic matter. After 
taking the seed heads from the standing straw and 
grasses, it thrashes them, blows out the chaff, sepa- 
rates the different kinds of seeds, and discharges 
them into bags ready for market. It consists of a 
car containing the machinery ; to thi^ may be at- 
tached any required number of horses. The inventor 
affirms that it has harvested the grain of two acres 
in one hour, performing the work with accuracy.* 



There is much truth in the following proverbs : 
" A garden that is well kept, is kept easily.'' 
" You must conquer weeds, or weeds will conquer 
you." 

* Thi3 machine is more fully noticed in the advertising pages. 



256 CULTIVATION. 

It is almost impossible to give a recapitulation 
of the matlers treated in this section, as it is, it- 
self, but an outline of subjects which might occupy 
our whole book. The scholar and the farmer should 
understand every principle which it contains, as well 
as they understand the multiplication table ; and 
their application will be found, in every instance, to 
produce the best results. 

The two great rules of mechanical cultivation 
are — 

Thorough under-draining. 

Deep and frequent disturbance of the 

SOIL. 

What are the two great rules in mechanical cultivation ? 



SECTION FIFTH. 



ANALYSIS. 



SECTIOX FIFTH. 
ANALYSIS 



« • • 



CHAPTER I. 

At the present time, when such marked improve- 
tnents have been, and are still being made, in the 
practice of agriculture, the farmer cannot be too 
strongly advised to procure an analysis of his soil, 
and for obvious reasons. 

It has been sufficiently proved that the plant 
draws from the soil certain kinds of mineral matter, 
in certain proportions ; also, that if the soil do not 
contain the constituents required, the plants cannot 
obtain them, and consequently cannot grow. Fur- 
thermore, in proportion to the ability of the soil to 
supply these materials, in exactly the same propor- 

Why does true practical economy require that the soil should be 
analyzed? 



260 ANALYSIS. 

tion will it, when under good treatment, produce 
good and abundant crops. 

All admit the value and the necessity of ma- 
nures ; they are required to make up deficiencies 
in the soil, and consequently, they must supply to it 
the matters which are wanting. In order to know 
what is wanting, we must know the composition of 
the soil. This can be learned only by accurate chem- 
ical analysis. Such an analysis every farmer must 
possess before he can conduct his operations with true 
loractical economy. 

An important question now arises as to whether 
each farmer can make his own analyses. He cannot 
do so without long study and practice. The late 
Prof Norton said that, at least two years' time would 
be necessary to enable a man to become compe- 
tent to make a reliable analysis. When we reflect 
that a farmer may never need more than five or six 
analyses, we shall see that the time necessary to learn 
the art ^vould be much more valuable than the cost 
of the analyses (at $5 or $10 each), setting aside the 
cost of apparatus, and the fact that while practising 
in the laboratory, he must not use his hands for any 
labor that would unfit them for the most delicate 
manipulations. 

Neither will travelling chemists be able to make 
analyses as accurately and as cheaply as those who 

Can each farmer make his own analyses ? 

Why will not travelling chemists answer the purpose ? 

How must an analysis be used ? 



ANALYSIS. 261 

work in their own laboratories, where their apparatus 
is not Hable to the many injuries consequent on fre- 
quent removal. The cost of sending one hundred 
samples of soil to a distant chemist, would be much 
less than the expense of having his apparatus brought 
to the town where his services are required. 

The loay in ivhich cm analysis should be used is a 
matter of much importance. To a man who knows 
nothing of chemistry (be he ever so successful a far- 
mer), an analysis, as received from a chemist, would 
be as useless and unintelhgible as though it were writ- 
ten in Chinese ; while, if a chemist who knew nothing 
of farming, were to give him advice concerning the ap- 
plication of manures, he would be led equally astray, 
and his course would be any thing but 2yf'cictical. It 
is necessary that chemical and practical knowledge 
should be combined, and then the value of analysis 
will be fully demonstrated. The amount of know- 
ledge required is not great, but it must be thorough. 
The information contained in this little book is suf- 
ficient, but it would be folly for a man to attempt to 
use an analysis from reading it once hurriedly over. 
It must be studied and thought on with great care, 
before it can be of material assistance. The even- 
ings of one winter, devoted to this subject, will en- 
able a farmer to understand the application of ana- 
lysis to practical farming, especially if other and 



How may a farmer obtain the requisite knowledge ? 

When are the eervices of a consulting agriculturist required? 



262 ANALYSIS. 

more compendious works are also read. A less time 
could hardly be recommended. 

Where this attention cannot be given to the sub- 
ject, the services of a Consulting Agriculturist should 
be employed to advise the treatment necessary to ren- 
der fertile the soil analyzed. 

Every farmer, however, should learn enough of 
the principles of agriculture to be able to use an 
analysis, when procured, without such assistance.''*' 

Nearly all scientific men (all of the highest merit) 
are unanimous in their conviction of the practical 
value of an analysis of soils ; and a volume of in- 
stances of their success, with hardly a single failure, 
might be published. 

Prof Mapes says, in the Working Farmer, that 
he has given advice on hundreds of different soils, 
and not a single instance can be found where he has 
failed to produce a profit greater than the cost of 
analysis and advice. Dr. T. 0. Jackson, of Boston, 
the late Prof Norton, of Yale College, and others, 
have had universal success in this matter. 

Analysis must be considered the only sure road 
to economical farming. 

To select samples of soil for analysis, take a 
spadeful from various parts of the field — going to 
exactly the depth to which it has been plowed — un- 
til, say a wheel-barrow full, has been obtained. Mix 

* See Author's card in the front of the book. 

Is there any doubt as to the practical value of analysis ? 
How should samples of soil for analysis be selected ? 



ANALYSIS. 263 

this well together, and send about a quart or a pint of 
it (free from stones) to the chemist. This will repre- 
sent all of that part of the form which has been sub- 
ject to the same cultivation, and is of the same me- 
chanical character. If there are marked differences 
in the kinds of soil, separate analyses will be neces- 
sary. 

When an analysis is obtained, a regular debtor 
and creditor account may be kept with the soil ; and 
the farmer may know by the composition of the ashes 
of his crops, and the manures supplied, whether he 
is maintainino; the fertility of his soil. 

Prof Mapes once purchased some land which 
could not produce corn at all, and by apptying only 
such manures as analysis indicated to be neces- 
sary, at a cost of less than $2 per acre, he obtained 
the first year over fifty hus'hels of shelled corn per 
acre. The land has since continued ta improve, and 
is as fertile as any in the State. It has produced in 
one season a sufficient crop of cabbages to pay the 
expense of cultivation, and over §250 per acre be- 
sides, though it was apparently loorthless when he 
purchased it. 

These are strong facts, and should arouse the far- 
mers of the v>^hole country to their true interests. 
Let them not call the teachings of science " book- 
fiirming/' but '^ prove all things — hold fast that 
which is good.'' 

Give an in-^tauoe of the success of ti'eatmeiit according to ann- 
h'sia ? 



264 



ANALYSIS. 



CHAPTER 11. 



TABLES OF ANALYSIS 



ANALYSES OF THE ASHES OF CROPS. 



No. L 



Wheat. 



Aslies in 1000 dry parts. 



20 



Silica (sand) 16 

Lime 28 

Magnesia ! 120 



Peroxide of L'on. 

Potash 

Soda 

Chlorine , 

Sulphuric Acid , 
Phosphoric Acid. 



7 
237 
91 

3 

498 



"Wheat 
Straw. 



60 



654 
67 
33 
13 

124 

2 

11 

58 

31 



Rye. 



24 



5 

50 
104 

14 
221 
116 

10 

496 



Eye 

Straw. 



40 

645 

91 

24 

14 

174 

3 

5 

8 

38 



No. IL 





Corn. 


Corn 
Stalks. 


Barley. 


BarPy 
Straw. 


Ashes in 1000 dry parts 


15 


44 


28 


1 61 


Silica (sand) 


15 

15 

162 

3 

261 

63 

2 

23 

449 


270 

86 

66 

8 

96 
277 

20 

5 

171 


271 
26 
75 
15 

136 

81 

1 

1 

389 


' 706 


Lime 


95 


Magnesia 


32 


Peroxide of Iron 


7 


Oxide of Manganese 

Potash 


1 

62 


Soda 


6 


Chlorine 


10 


Sulphuric Acid 


16 


Phosphoric Acid 


81 







ANALYSIS. 



265 



1^0. III. 





Oats. 


Oat 

Straw. 


Buck 
Wheat. 


Po- 

tatacs 


Ashes in 1000 dry parts 


20 


51 


21 


00 


Silica (sand) 


7 
60 
99 

4 

|.262[ 

3 
104 
438 


484 
81 
38 
18 

191 
97 
32 
33 
27 


7 
67 

104 
11 
87 

201 

22 
500 


42 


Lime 


21 


Magnesia 


53 


Peroxide of Iron 


5 


Potash 

Soda 


557 
19 


Chlorine 


43 


Sulphuric Acid 


137 


Phosphoric Acid 


12() 


Organic Matter 


750 
■Water. 



No. lY. 



Ashes in 1000 dry parts 

Silica (sand) 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Peroxide of Iron 

Potash 

Soda 

Chlorine 

Sulphuric Acid 

Phosphoric Acid 

Organic Matter 



Peas. 


Beans. 


Turnips. 


25 
5 


27 


76 


12 


71 


53 


58 


128 


85 


80 


48 


10 


6 


9 


361 


336 


398 


91 


106 


108 


23 


7 


37 


44 


10 


131 


333 


378 


67 

870 Water. 



Turnip 
Tops. 



170 

8 

283 

81 

8 

286 

54 

160 

125 

93 



12 



266 



ANALYSIS. 



Ashes in 1000 diy parts 

Silica (sand) 

Alumina (clay) 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Peroxide of Iron 

Potash 

Soda 

Chlorine - 

Sulphuric Acid 

Phosphoric Acid 



Flax. 


Linseed. 


Meadow 
Hay. < 


50 


46 


60 


257 


75 


344 


37? 






148 


83 


196 


44 


146 


78 


36? 


9 


7 


117 


240 


236 


118 


45 


19 


29 


2 


28 


32 


23 


29 


130 


365 


58 



Eed 
Clover. 



75 



48 

371 
46 

2 
267 
71 
48 
60 
88 



Xo. VI. 

Amount of Inorganic Matter removed from the soil by ten 
bushels of grains, etc., and by the straw, etc., required in 
their production — estimated in pounds: 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide of Iron 

Sulphuric Acid . . . 
Phosphoric Acid . . 

Chlorine 

Silica 

Poimds carried off 





1200 lbs. 




Wheat. 


Wheat 
Straw. 


Rye. 


2.86 


8.97 


2.51 


1.04 


.12 


1.33 


.34 


4.84 


.56 


1.46 


2.76 


1.18 


.08 


.94i 


.15 


.03 


4.20 


.11 


6.01 


2.22 
.79 


5.64 


.14 


47.16 


.05 


12 


72 


m 



1620 lbs 

Ryo 

Straw. 



11.34 

.20 

5.91 

1.58 

.88 

.05 

2.49 

.30 

42.25 



66 



ANALYSIS. 



267 



No. VII. 





Corn. 


1630 lbs. 

Corn 

Stalks. 


Oats. 


700 lbs. 

Oat 
Straw. 


Potash 


2.78 

.12 
1.52 

4.52 
.06 


6.84 

19.83 

6.02 

4.74 

.57 

.36 

12.15 

1.33 

19.16 


1.69 

.39 
.64 
.02 
.66 
2.80 
.02 
.18 


12.08 


Soda 


Lime 


3.39 
1.59 
.78 
1.41 
1.07 
1.36 
20.32 


Magnesia 


Oxide of Iron 


Sulphuric Acid 


Phosphoric Acid 


Chlorine 


Silica 




Pounds carried off 


9 


71 


H 


42 







No. YIII. 



Potash j 1.01 



Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide of Iron . . . 
Sulphuric Acid . . 
Phosphoric Acid 

Chlorine 

Silica 



Pounds carried off 



Buck 
Wheat 


Barley. 


660 lbs. ' 
Barley , 
Straw. ! 


1.01 


1.90 


2.57 


2.13 


1.18 


.23 


.78 


.96 


3.88 


1.20 


1.00 


1.31 


.14 


.20 


.90 


.25 


.01 


.66 


5.40 


5.35 


1.25 




.01 


.40 


.09 


3.90 


28.80 


11 


14 


. 40 



2000 lbs 
Flax. 



11.78 

11.82 

11.85 

9.38 

7.32 

3.19 

13.05 

2.90 

25.71 

100 



268 



ANALYSIS. 



No. IX. 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide of Iron 

Sulphuric Acid. . . 
Phosphoric Acid . 

Chlorine 

Silica 

Pounds carried off 



Beans. 


1120 lbs. 
Bean 

Straw. 


Field 
Peas. 


1366 iba 

Pea 

Straw. 


5.54 


36.28 


5.90 


3.78 


1.83 


1.09 


1.40 




98.98 


13.60 


.81 


43.93 


.28 


4.55 


1.30 


5.50 


.10 


.20 


.15 


1.40 


.16 


.64 


.64 


5.43 


7.80 


5.00 


5.50 


3.86 


.13 


1.74 


.23 


.08 


.18 


4.90 


.7 


16.02 


17 


68 


16 


80 



No. X. 



Potash , 

Soda 

Lime , 

Magnesia 

Oxide of Iron . , 

Sulphuric Acid 

Phosphoric Acid . . 

Chlorine , 

Silica , 

Pounds carried off, 



1 Ton 

Turnips. 



7.14 
.86 

2.31 
.91 
.23 

2.30 

1.29 
.61 

1.36 



17 



635 lbs. 

Turnip 

Tops. 



4.34 

.84 
3.61 

.48 

.13 
1.81 
1.31 
2.35 

.13 



1 Ton 

Potatoes. 



27.82 
.93 
1.03 
2.63 
.26 
6.81 
6.25 
2.13 
2.14 



15 



50 



2000 lbs 

Eed 
Clover. 



31.41 
8.34 

43.77 

5.25 

.23 

7.05 

10.28 
5.86 
5.81 



118 



ANALYSIS. 



269 



No. XI. 





2000 lbs. 
Meadow- 
Hay. 


2000 lbs. 

Cabbago 

Water 9-10 


Potash 


18.11 
1.35 

22.95 
6.75 
1.69 
2.70 
5.97 
2.59 

37.89 


5.25 


Soda 


9.20 


Lime 


9.45 


Majrnesia 


2.70 


Oxide of Trnn 


.25 


Sulphuric 
Phosphori 
Chlorine . 


Acid 


9.60 


c Acid 


5.60 




2.60 


Silica 


.35 






Pounds carTif^d oflp 


100 


45 









No. XII. 

Composition of Ashes, leached and unleached, showing their 
manurial value : 



Potash 

Soda . . 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Oxide of Iron. . . 
Sulphuric Acid . 
Phosphoric Acid 
Chlorine 



Oak 


Oak 


Beech 


unleached. 


leached. 


unleached. 


84 


• • • • • • 


158 


56 




29 


750 


548 


634 


45 


6 


11« 


6 




8 


12 




14 


35 


8 


31 

2 



Beech 
leached. 



426 
70 
15 



270 



ANALYSIS. 

No. xni. 



Potash 

Soda 

Lime 

Magnesia , 

Oxide of Iron . , 
Sulphuric Acid , . 
Phosphoric Acid. 
Chlorine , 



Birch 
leached. 



522 

30 

6 



43 



Seaweed 
unleached. 



Bitumin- 
ous Coal 
unleached. 



180 

210 

94 

99 

3 

248 

52 

98 



2 
2 

21 
2 

40 
9 
2 
1 



No. xiy. 

TOBACCO. 
Analysis of the ash of the Plant [Will & Fresedius] — 

Potash 19.55 

Soda 0.27 

Magnesia 11.07 

Lime 48.68 

Phosphoric Acid 3. 60 

Sulphuric Acid 3.29 

Oxide of Iron 2.99 

Chloride of Sodium -. 3.54 

Loss ^. . . 6.95 



100.00 



Analysis of the ash of the Eoot [Berthier] — 

Soluble Matter 12.3 

Insoluble Matter 8T.7 

The Soluble parts consist of nearly — 

Carbonic Acid 10.0 

Sulphuric Acid 10.3 

Muriatic Acid (Chlorine, &c.) I . .' •. . 18.26 

Potash and Soda 61.44 



100.00 



ANALYSIS. 



271 











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ANALYSIS. 



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ANALYSIS. 273 






No. XYII. 


Amount of Ash left after burning 1000 lbs. of various plants, 


ordinarily dry- 




Wheat 


20 


its straw 50 


Barley 


30 


" 50 


Oats 


40 


" 60 


Eye 


20 


" 40 


Indian Corn 


15 


" 50 


Pea 


30 


" 50 


Bean 


30 




Meadow Hay 


50 


to 100 


Clover " 


90 




Rye Grass " 


95 




Potato 


8 


to 15 


Turnip 


5 


to 8 


Carrot 


15 


to 20 



No. XVIII. 
MANURES. 

HOESE MAITUEE. 

Solid Dung — 

Combustible Matter 19.68 

Ash 3.07 

Water 77.25 

Composition of the Ash— 10,000 

Silica 62.40 

Potash 11.30 

Soda 1.98 

Oxide of Iron 1.17 

Lime 4.63 

Magnesia 3.84 

Oxide of Manganese 2.13 

Phosphoric Acid 10.49 

Sulphuric Acid 1.89 

Chlorine 0.03 

Loss 0.14 



100.00 



12* 



274 ANALYSIS. 

No. XIX. 
NI GHT SOIL. 

Solid (Asli)— 

Earthy Pliospbates and a trace of Sulphate of Lime 100 

Sulphate of Soda and Potash, and Phosphate of Soda 8 

Carbonate of Soda 8 

Silica 16 

Charcoal and Loss 18 

150 

Urine 

Urea* 80.10 

Uric Acid 1.00 

Sal Ammoniac* 1.50 

Lactic Acid, etc 17.14 

Mucus 32 

Sulphate of Potash 3.71 

Sulphate of Soda 3.16 

Phosphate of Ammonia* 1.65 

Earthy Phosphates 3.94 

Salt (Chloride of Sodium) 4.45 

Silica 0.03 

67.00 
Water 933.00 



1000.00 
* Supply Ammonia. 



No. XX. 

cow MANUrtE. 

Solid (Ash)— 

Phosphates. 20.9 

Peroxide of Iron 8.8 

Lime 1 .5 

Sulphate of Lime (Plaster) 3.1 

Chloride of Potassium trace 

Silica 63.7 

Loss 2.0 

100.0 



ANALYSIS. 275 
No. XXI. 

COMPAEATIVE VALUE OF THE UEINE OF DIFFERENT ANIMALS. 

Solid Matter. — . , 

Organic. Inorganic. -loiai. 

Man 23.4: 7.6 31 

Horse 27. 33. 60 

Cow 60. 20. 70 

Pig 56. 18. 74 

Sheep 28. 12. 40 



No. XXII. 

GUANO. 

Water 6.40 

Ammonia 2.71 

Uric Acid 34.70 

Oxalic Acid, etc 26.79 

Fixed Alkaline Salts. 

Sulphate of Soda 2.94 

Phosphate of Soda 48 

Chloride of Sodium (salt) 86 

Earthy Salts. 

Carbonate of Lime 1.36 

Phosphates 19.24 

Foreign Matter. 

Silicious grit and sand 4.52 

100.00 



For the analysis of fertile and barren soils, see page 72. 



THE PRACTICAL'FARMER. 



THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 



-•-♦-•- 



Who is the py^actical farmer ? Let us look at tw<! 
pictures and decide. 

Here is a farm of 100 acres in ordinaiy condi- 
tion. It is owned and tilled by a hard-working man, 
who, in the busy season, employs one or two assist- 
ants. The farm is free from debt, but it does not 
produce an abundant income ; therefore, its owner 
cannot afford to purchase the best implements, or 
make other needed improvements ; besides, he don't 
believe in such things. His father was a good solid 
farmer ; so was his grandfather ; and so is he, or 
thinks he is. He is satisfied that ^ the good old way ' 
is best, and he sticks to it. He works from morning 
till night ; from spring till fall. In the winter, he 
7'ests, as much as his lessened duties will allow. 
During this time, he reads little, or nothing. Least 
of all does he read about farming. He don't want 
to learn how to dig potatoes out of a book. Book 
farming is nonsense. Many other similar ideas keep 
him from agricultural reading. His house is comfort- 



280 THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 

able, and his barns are quite as good as his neigh- 
bors', while his farm gives him a living. It is true 
that his soil does not produce as much as it did ten 
years ago ; but prices are better, and he is satisfied. 

Let us look at his premises, and see how his 
affairs are managed. First, examine the land. ^ Well, 
it is good fair land. Some of it is a little springy, 
but is not to be called ivet. It will produce a ton 
and a half of hay to the acre — it used to produce 
two tons. There are some stones on the land, but not 
enough in his estimation to do harm. The plowed 
fields are pretty good ; they will produce 35 bushels 
of corn, 13 bushels of wheat, or 30 bushels of oats 
per acre, when the season is not dry. His father 
used to get more ; but, somehow, the weather is not 
so favorable as it was in old times. He has thought 
of raising - oot crops, but they take more labor than 
he can afford to hire. Over, in the back part of the 
land there is a muck-hole, which is the only piece of 
worthless land on the whole farm. 

Now, let us look at the barns and barn-yards. 
The stables are |)retty good. There are some wide 
cracks in the siding, but they help to ventilate, and 
make it healthier for the cattle. The manure is 
thrown out of the back windows, and is left in piles 
under the eaves on the sunny side of the barn. The 
rain and sun make it nicer to handle. The cattle 
have to go some distance for water ; and this gives 
them exercise. All of the cattle are not kept in the 



THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 281 

stable ; the fattening stock are kept in the various 
fields, where hay is fed out to them from the stack. 
The barn-yard is often occuj^ied by cattle, and is 
covered with their manure, which lies there until it 
is carted on to the land. In the shed are the tools 
of the ffirm, consisting of carts, plows — not deep 
plows, this farmer thinks it best to have roots near 
the surface of the soil where they can have the benetit 
of the sun's heat, — a harrow, hoes, rakes, etc. These 
tools are all in good order ; and, unlike those of his 
less prudent neighbor, they are protected from the 
weather. 

The crops are cultivated with the plow and hoe, 
as they have been since the land was cleared, and 
as they always will be until this man dies. 

Here is the ^ practical farmer ' of the present day. 
Hard working, out of debt, and economical — of dol- 
lars and cents, if not of soil and manures. He is a 
better farmer than two thirds of the three millions 
of farmers in tlie country. He is one of the best 
farmers in his town — there are but few better in the 
county, not many in the State. He represents the 
better class of his profession. 

With all this, he is, in matters relating to his 
business, an unreading, unthinking man. He knows 
nothing of the first principles of farming, and is suc- 
cessful by the indulgence of nature, not because he 
understands her, and is able to make the most of her 
assistance. 



282 THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 

This is an unpleasant fact, but it is one which 
cannot be denied. We do not say this to disparage 
the farmer, but to arouse him to a reahzation of his 
position and of his power to improve it. 

But let us see where he is wrong. 

He is wrong in thinking that his land does not 
need drainiag. He is wrong in being satisfied with 
one and a half tons of hay to the acre when he might 
easily get two and a half He is wrong in not re- 
moving as far as possible every stone that can in- 
terfere with the deej) and thorough cultivation of his 
soil. He is v/rong in reaping le^s than his father did, 
when he should get more. He is wrong in ascribing 
to the weather, and similar causes, what is due to 
the actual impoverishment of his soil. He is wrong 
in not raising turnips, carrots, and other roots, which 
his winter stock so much need, when they might be 
raised at a cost of less than one third of their value 
as food. He is wrong in considering worthless a de- 
posit of muck, which is a mine of wealth if properly 
employed. He is wrong in ventikdmg his stables at 
the cost of heat. He is wrong in his treatment of 
his manures, for he loses more than one half of their 
value from evaporation, fermentation, and leaching. 
He is wrong in not having water at hand for his 
cattle — their exercise detracts from their accumula- 
tion of fat and their production of heat, and it ex- 
poses them to cold. He is wrong in not protecting 
his fattening stock from the cold of winter ; for, 



THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 283 

under exposure to cold, the food, which would 
otherwise be used in the formation of fat^ goes to 
the production of the animal heat necessary to coun- 
teract the chilling influence of the weather, p. 50. 
He is wrong in allowing his manure to lie un- 
protected in the barn-yard. He is wrong in not 
adding to his tools the deep surface plow, the sub- 
soil plow, the cultivator, and many others of im- 
proved construction. He is wrong in cultivating^ 
with the plow and hoe, those crops which could be 
better or more cheaply managed with the cultivator 
or horse-hoe. He is wrong in many things more, as 
we shall see if we examine all of his yearlv routine of 
work. He is right in a few things ; and but a few, 
as he himself would admit, had he that knowledge 
of his business which he could obtain in the leisure 
hours of a single winter. Still, he thinks hims^f a 
practical farmer. In twenty years, we shall have 
fewer such, for our vouno; men have the mental 
capacity and mental energy necessary to raise them 
to the highest point of practical education, and to 
that point they are gradually but surely rising. 

Let us now place this same farm in the hands of 
an educated and understanding cultivator ; and, at 
the end of five years, look at it again. 

He has sold one half of it, and cultivates but fifty 
acres. The money for which the other fifty were 
sold has been used in the improvement of the farm. 
The land has all been under-drained, and shows the 



284 THE PRACTICAL FAEMER. 

many improvements consequent on such treatment. 
The stones and small rocks have been removed, 
leaving the surface of the soil smooth, and allowing 
the use of the sub-soil plow, which with the under- 
drains have more than doubled the productive power 
of the farm. Sufficient labor is employed to cul- 
tivate with improved tools, extensive root crops, 
and they invariably give a large yield. The grass 
land produces a yearly average of 2 J tons of hay per 
acre. From 80 to 100 bushels of corn, 30 bushels 
of wheat, and 45 bushels of oats are the average of 
the crops reaped. The soil has been analyzed, and 
put in the best possible coiidition, while it is yearly 
supplied with manures containing every thing taken 
away in the abundant crops. The analysis is never 
lost sight of in the regulation of crops and the applica- 
tion of manures. The luoHliless muck bed was re- 
tained, and is made worth one dollar a load to the 
compost heap, especially as the land requires an 
increase of organic matter. A new barn has been 
built large enough to store all of the hay produced 
on the farm . It has stables, which are tight and 
warm, and are well ventilaced above the cattle. The 
stock being thus protected from the loss of their heat, 
give more milk, and make more fat on a less amount 
of food than they did under the old system. Water 
is near at hand, and the animals are not obliged to 
over exercise. The manure is carefully com230sted, 
either under a shed constructed for the purpose with 



THE PRACTICAL FARMER. 285 

a tank and pump, or is thrown into the cellar below, 
where the hogs mix it with a large amount of muck, 
which has been carted in after being thoroughly de- 
composed b}^ the lime and salt mixture. 

They are thus protected against all loss, and are 
prepared for the immediate use of crops. No ma- 
nures are allowed to lie in the barn-yard, but they 
are all early removed to the compost heap, w^here 
they are preserved by being mixed with carbonaceous 
matter. In the tool shed, we find deep surface- 
plows, sub-soil plows, cultivators, horse-hoes, seed- 
drills, and many other valuable improvements. 

This farmer takes one or more agricultural papers, 
from which he learns many new methods of cultiva- 
tion, while his knowledge of the reasons of various 
agricultural effects enables him to discard the injudi- 
cious suggestions of mere hooh farmers and unedu- 
cated dreamers. 

Here are two specimens of farmers. Neither 
description is over-drawn. The first is much more 
careful in his operations than the majority of om* 
rural population. The second is no better than 
many who may be found in America. 

We appeal to the common sense of the reader of 
this work to know which ot the two is the practical 
farmer — let him imitate either as his judgment 
shall dictate. 

FINIS. 



EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 



Absorb — to soak in a liquid or a gas. 

Abstract — to take from. 

Acid — sour ; a sour substance. 

Agriculture — the art of cultivating the soil. 

Alkali — the direct opposite of an acid, with which it has a ten- 
dency to unite. 

Alumina — the base of clay. 

Analysis — separating into its primary parts any compound sub- 
stance. 

Carbonate — a compound, consisting of carbonic acid and an alkali. 

Caustic — burning. 

Chloride — a compound containing chlorine. 

Clevis — that part of a plow by which the drawing power is at- 
tached. 

Decompose — to separate the constituents of a body from their com- 
binations, forming new kinds of compounds. 

Digestion — the decomposition of food in the stomach and intestines 
of animals (agricultural). 

Dew — deposit of the insensible vapor of the atmosphere on cold 
bodies. 

Excrement — the matter given out by the organs of plants and ani- 
mals, being those parts of their food which they are unable to 
assimilate. 

FERMENTATioN-pa kind of decomposition. 

Gas — air — aeriform matter. 

GuRNEYisM — see Mulching. 

Ingredient — component part. 

Inorganic — mineral, or earthy. 

Mouldboard — that part of a surface plow which turns the sod. 



288 EXPLANATION OF TERMS. 

Mulching — covering the soil with litter, leaves, or other refuse 
matter. See p. 24*7. 

Neutralize — To overcome the characteristic properties of. 

Organic Matter — that kind of matter which at times possesses an 
organized (or living) form, and at others exists as a gas in the 
atmosphere. 

Oxide — a compound of ox3'gen with a metal. 

Phosphate — a compound of phosphoric acid with an alkali. 

Proximate — an organic compound, such as wood, starch, gum, etc. ; 
a product of life. 

Pungent — pricking. 

Putrefaction — rotting. 

Saturate — io Jill the pores of any substance, as a sponge with wa- 
ter, or charcoal with ammonia. 

Silicate — a compound of silica with an alkali. 

Soluble — capable of being dissolved. 

Solution — a liquid containing another substance dissolved in it. 

Saturated Solution — one which contains as much of the foreign 
substance as it is capable of holding. 

Sponqioles — the mouths at the ends of roots. 

Sulphate — a compound of sulphuric acid with an alkali. 

Vapor — gas. 



3 477 



N 



